Taqwa is Immunity not Restraint:
We have already mentioned some of the various elements found in the spiritual
advices (mawa'iz) of the Nahj al-balaghah. We began with taqwa and saw that
taqwa, from the viewpoint of the Nahj al-balaghah, is a sublime spiritual
faculty which is the cause of certain attractions and repulsions; i.e.
attraction towards edifying spiritual values and repulsion towards degrading materialistic
vices. The Nahj al-balaghah considers taqwa as a spiritual state that gives
strength to human personality and makes man the master of his own self.
Taqwa as Immunity:
The Nahj al-balaghah stresses that taqwa is for man a shield and a shelter, not
a chain or a prison. There are many who do not distinguish between immunity and
restraint, between security and confinement, and promptly advocate the
destruction of the sanctuary of taqwa in the name of freedom and liberation
from bonds and restraint.
That which is common between a sanctuary and a prison is the existence of a
barrier. Whereas the walls of a sanctuary avert dangers, the walls of a prison
hinder the inmates from realizing their inner capacities and from benefiting
from the bounties of life. 'Ali ('a) clarifies the difference between the two,
where he says:
Let it be known to you, O servants of God, that taqwa is a formidable fortress,
whereas impiety and corruption is a weak and indefensible enclosure that does
not safeguard its people, and does not offer any protection to those who take
refuge in it. Indeed, it is only with taqwa that the tentacles of sins and
misdeeds can be severed.[6]
'Ali ('a), in this sublime advice, compares sins and evil deeds which are
afflictions of the human soul to poisonous insects and reptiles, and suggests
that the faculty of taqwa is an effective defence against them. In some of his
discourses, he makes it clear that taqwa not only does not entail restraint and
restriction or is an impediment to freedom, but on the other hand it is the
source and fountainhead of all true freedoms. In khutbah 230, he says:
Taqwa is the key to guidance, the provision for the next world, the freedom
from every kind of slavery, and the deliverance from every form of destruction.
The message is clear. Taqwa gives man spiritual freedom and liberates him from
the chains of slavery and servitude to lusts and passions. It releases him from
the bonds of envy, lust, and anger, and this expurgates society from all kinds
of social bondages and servitudes. Men who are not slaves of comfort, money,
power, and glory, never surrender to the various forms of bondage which plague
the human society.
The Nahj al-balaghah deals with the theme of taqwa and its various effects in
many of its passages; but we don't consider it necessary to discuss all of them
here. Our main objective here is to discover the meaning of taqwa from the
point of view of the Nahj al-balaghah, so as to unearth the reason for so much
emphasis that this book places on this concept.
Of the many effects of taqwa that have been pointed out, two are more important
than the rest: firstly, the development of insight and clarity of vision;
secondly, the capacity to solve problems and to weather difficulties and
crises. We have discussed this in detail elsewhere.[7] Moreover, a discussion
of these effects of taqwa here will take us beyond our present aim which is to
clarify the true meaning of taqwa. It will not be out of place to call
attention to certain profound remarks of the Nahj al-balaghah about the
reciprocal relationship between the human being and taqwa.
A Reciprocal Commitment:
In spite of the great emphasis laid by the Nahj al-balaghah on taqwa as a kind
of guarantee and immunity against sin and temptation, it should be noticed that
one must never neglect to safeguard and protect taqwa itself. Taqwa guards man,
and man must safeguard his taqwa. This, as we shall presently explain, is not a
vicious circle.
This reciprocal guarding of the one by the other is comparable to the one
between a person and his clothes. A man takes care of his clothes and protects
them from being spoiled or stolen, while the clothes in turn guard him against
heat or cold. In fact the Holy Quran speaks of taqwa as a garment:
And the garment of taqwa -that is better. (7:26)
'Ali ('a), speaking about this relationship of mutual protection between a
person and his tawqa', says:
Turn your sleep into wakefulness by the means of taqwa and spend your days in
its company. Keep its consciousness alive in your hearts. With it wash away
your sins and cure your ailments... Beware, guard your taqwa and place your
self under its guard.[8]
At another place in the same sermon, 'Ali ('a) says:
O God's servants, I advise you to cultivate the taqwa of God. Indeed it is a right
that God has over you and it is through it that you can have any right over
God. You should beseech God's help for guarding it and seek its aid for
[fulfilling your duty to] God.[9]
Zuhd and Piety:
Another spiritual motif conspicuous in the teachings of the Nahj al-balaghah is
zuhd, which after taqwa is the most recurring theme of the book. 'Zuhd' means
renunciation of the 'world', and very often we encounter denunciation of the
'world', and invitation and exhortation to renounce it. It appears to me that
it forms one of the important themes of the Nahj al-balaghah, which needs to be
elucidated and explained in the light of various aspects of 'Ali's approach.
We shall begin our discussion with the word 'zuhd' The words 'zuhd' and
'raghbah' (attraction, desire), if mentioned without reference to their
objects, are opposite to each other. 'Zuhd' means indifference and avoidance,
and 'raghbah ' means attraction, inclination, and desire.
Indifference can be of two kinds: involuntary and cultivated. A person is
involuntarily indifferent towards a certain thing when by nature he does not
have any desire for it, as in the case of a sick person who shows no desire
either for food, or fruits, or anything else. Obviously, this kind of
indifference and abstinence has nothing to do with the particular sense implied
in 'zuhd '.
Another kind of indifference or abstinence is spiritual or intellectual; that
is, things which are natural objects of desire are not considered the goal and
objective by a human being in the course of his struggle for perfection and
felicity. The ultimate objective and goal may be something above mundane aims
and sensual pleasures; either it may be to attain the sensuous pleasures of the
Hereafter, or it may not belong to this kind of things. It may be some high
ethical and moral ideal, like honour, dignity, nobility, liberty, or it may
belong to the spiritual sphere, like the remembrance of God, the love of God,
and the desire to acquire nearness to Him.
Accordingly the zahid (i.e. one who practises zuhd) is someone whose interest
transcends the sphere of material existence, and whose object of aspiration
lies beyond the kind of things we have mentioned above. The indifference of a
zahid originates in the sphere of his ideas, ideals, and hopes, not in his
physiological makeup.
There are two places where we come across the definition of 'zuhd' in the Nahj
al-balaghah. Both of them confirm the above interpretation of zuhd. 'Ali ('a),
in khutba 81, says:
O people! zuhd means curtailing of hopes, thanking God for His blessings and
bounties, and abstaining from that which He has forbidden.
In hikmah 439, he says:
All zuhd is summarized in two sentences of the Quran: God, the Most Exalted,
says, ... So that you may not grieve for what escapes you, nor rejoice in what
has come to you. [57:23] Whoever does not grieve over what he has lost and does
not rejoice over what comes to him has acquired zuhd in both of its aspects.
Obviously when something does not occupy a significant position amongst one's
objectives and ideals, or rather is not at all significant in the scheme of
things which matter to him, its gain and loss do not make the slightest
difference to him.
However, there are some points that need clarification. Is zuhd, or detachment
from the world, on which the Nahj al-balaghah, following the Quranic teachings,
puts so much emphasis, to be taken solely in an ethical and spiritual sense? In
other words, is zuhd purely a spiritual state, or does it possess practical
implications also? That is, is zuhd spiritual abstinence only or is it
accompanied by an abstinence in practical life also? Assuming that zuhd is to
be applied in practice, is it limited to abstinence from unlawful things
(muharramat), as pointed out in khutba 81, or does it include something more,
as exemplified by the life of 'Ali ('a) and before him bythe life of the Holy
Prophet ('s)?
Proceeding on the assumption that zuhd is not limited to-muharramat only and
that it covers permissible things (mubahat) as well, one may ask: what is its
underlying rationale and philosophy? What is the use of an ascetic life that
limits and confines life, rejecting its blessings and bounties? Is zuhd to be
practised at all times or only under certain particular conditions? Is zuhd-in
the sense of abstinence from even permissible things-basically in agreement
with other Islamic teachings?
Apart from this, the basis of zuhd and renunciation of the world is the pursuit
of supra-material objectives and ideals. What are they from the point of view
of Islam? In particular, how does the Nahj al-balaghah describe them?
All these questions regarding zuhd, renunciation, and curtailing of
hopes-themes which have so often been discussed in the Nahj al-balaghah-need to
be clarified. We shall discuss these questions in the following pages and try
to answer them.
Islamic Zuhd and Christian Asceticism:
In the last section we said that zuhd, as defined by the Nahj al-balaghah, is a
spiritual state that makes the zahid, on account of his spiritual and other
worldly aspirations, indifferent towards the manifestations of material
existence. This indifference is not confined to his heart, intellect, and
feelings and is not limited to his conscience. It also manifests itself on the
practical level of life in the form of simplicity, contentment, and obstention
from hedonistic urges and love of luxuries. A life of zuhd not only implies
that a man should be free from attachment to the material aspects of life, but
he should also practically abstain from indulgence in pleasures. The zuhhad are
those who in life are satisfied with the barest material necessities. 'Ali ('a)
was a zahid, who was not only emotionally detached from the world but also
indifferent to its pleasures and enjoyments. In other words, he had 'renounced'
the 'world'.
Two Questions:
Here, inevitably, two questions shall arise in the reader's mind. Firstly, as
we know, Islam has opposed monasticism considering it to be an innovation of
Christian priests and monks.[10] The Prophet ('s) has stated in unequivocal
terms that:
There is no monasticism (rahbaniyyah) in Islam.
Once when the Prophet ('s) was informed that some of his Companions had retired
into seclusion renouncing everything and devoting all their time to worship and
prayer in seclusion, he became very indignant. He told them: "I, who am
your prophet, am not such". In this way, the Prophet ('s) made them to
understand that Islam is a religion of life and society, not a monastic faith.
Moreover, the comprehensive and multifaceted teachings of Islam in social,
economic, political and moral spheres are based on reverence for life, not on
its renunciation.
Apart from this, monasticism and renunciation of life are incompatible with the
world-view of Islam and its optimistic outlook about the universe and creation.
Unlike some other philosophies and creeds, Islam does not view the world and
life in society with pessimism. It does not divide all creation into ugly and
beautiful, black and white, good and evil, proper and improper, right and
wrong. Now the second question may be stated in these words: "Aside from
the fact that asceticism is the same as monasticism-which are both incompatible
with the Islamic spirit-what is the philosophy underlying zuhd ?
Moreover, why should men be urged to practise zuhd? Why should man, seeing the
limitless bounties of God and good things of life around him, be called upon to
pass by the side of this delightful stream indifferently and without so much as
wetting his feet? Are the ascetic teachings found in Islam, on this basis,
later innovations (bid'ah) introduced into Islam from other creeds like
Christianity and Buddhism? And if this is correct, how are we to explain and
interpret the teachings of the Nahj al-balaghah? How can we explain the
indubitable details known about the Prophet's life and that of 'Ali ('a)?
The answer is that Islamic zuhd is different from Christian asceticism or
monasticism. Asceticism is retreat from people and society and seclusion for
the purpose of worship. According to it, the life and works of the world are
separate from the works of the Here-after and the one is alien to the other.
One should, of necessity, choose either one of the two. One should either
devote oneself to worship of God which shall bear fruits in the Hereafter, or
take up the life of the world and benefit from its immediate pleasures.
Accordingly, monasticism is opposed to life and social relationships. It
requires with-drawal from people and negation of responsibility and commitment
towards them.
On the other hand, zuhd in Islam, though it requires a simple and unaffected
life-style and is based on abstention from luxuries and love of comforts and
pleasures, operates in the very midst of life and social relations and is
sociable. It draws inspiration, and proceeds, from the goal of better fulfilment
of social responsibilities and duties.
The conception of zuhd in Islam is not something that would lead to asceticism,
because a sharp distinction between this world and the next is nowhere drawn.
From the viewpoint of Islam, this world and the next are not separable, not
alien to each other. The relation of this world to the other is similar to that
between the inward and outward sides of a single reality. They are like the
warp and woof of a single fabric. They are to each other as the soul to the body.
Their relation-ship can be assumed to be something midway between unity and
duality. The works of this world and those of the next are interrelated
similarly. Their difference is that of quality, without being essential.
Accordingly, that which is harmful for the other world is also to one's
detriment in the present world, and everything which is beneficial for the
summum bonum of life in this world is also beneficial for life in the next
world. Therefore, if a certain work which is in accordance with the higher
interests of life in this world is performed with motives that are devoid of
the higher, supra-material, and transcendental elements, that work would be
considered totally this-worldly and would not, as the Quran tells us, elevate
man in his ascent towards God. However, if a work or action is motivated by
sublime aims and intentions and is executed with a higher vision that
transcends the narrow limits of worldly life, the same work and action is
considered 'other-worldly.'
The Islamic zuhd, as we said, is grounded in the very context and stream of
life and gives a peculiar quality to living by emphasizing certain values in
life. As affirmed by the Islamic texts, zuhd in Islam is based on three
essential principles of the Islamic world-outlook.
The Three Essential Principles:
1. Enjoyments derived from the physical, material, and natural means of life
are not sufficient for man's happiness and felicity. A series of spiritual
needs are inbuilt in the human nature, without whose satisfaction the enjoyment
provided by material means of life is not enough to make man truly happy.
2. The individual's felicity and happiness is not separable from that of
society. Since man is emotionally bound to his society, and carries within him
a sense of responsibility towards it, his individual happiness cannot be
independent of the prosperity and peace of his fellow men.
3. The soul, despite its fusion and a kind of unity with the body, has a
reality of its own. It is a principle in addition to the body which constitutes
another principle in itself. The soul is an independent source of pleasure and
pain. Like the body, or rather even more than it, it stands in need of
nourishment, training, growth, and development. The soul, however, cannot
dispense with the health and vigour of the body. At the same time, it is
undeniable that total indulgence in physical pleasures and complete immersion
into the delights of sensual experiences does not leave any opportunity for
realizing the soul's unlimited possibilities. Therefore, there exists a kind of
incompatibility between physical enjoyment and spiritual satisfaction. This is
especially true if the attention and attachment to physical needs were carried
to the very extreme of total immersion and absorption.
It is not true that all sorrow and grief are related to the soul and that all
pleasures are derived from the body. In fact, the spiritual pleasures are much
profounder, purer, and lasting than bodily pleasures. To sum up, one-sided
attention to physical pleasures and material enjoyments finally results in
compromising the total human happiness. Therefore, if we want to make our lives
happy, rich, pure, majestic, attractive, and beautiful, we cannot afford to
ignore the spiritual aspects of our being.
With due attention to these principles, the meaning of zuhd in Islam becomes
clear. The knowledge of these principles allows us to understand why Islam
rejects monasticism but welcomes a form of asceticism which is rooted in the
very heart of life and in the context of social existence. We shall explain the
meaning of zuhd in Islamic texts on the basis of these three principles.
The Zahid and the Monk:
We said that Islam encourages zuhd but condemns monasticism. Both the zahid and
the ascetic monk seek abstinence from pleasures and enjoyments. But the monk
evades life in society and the respon-sibilities and the duties it entails,
regarding them as the low and mean facets of worldly existence, and takes
refuge in mountains or monasteries. On the other hand, the zahid accepts society
with its norms, ideals, duties, and commitments. Both the zahid and the monk
are otherworldly, but the zahid is a social otherworldly. Also their attitudes
to abstinence from pleasures are not identical; the monk disdains hygiene and
cleanliness and derides married life and procreation. The zahid, on the
contrary, considers hygiene and cleanliness, matrimony and parenthood to be a
part of his duties. Both the zahid and the monk are ascetics, but whereas the
'world' renounced by the zahid is indulgence and immersion in pleasures,
luxuries, and comforts (he rejects the attitude which considers them to be
life's ultimate goal and objective), the 'world' renounced by the monk includes
life's work and activity, and the duty and responsibility which go with social
life. That is why the zahid's zuhd operates in the midst of social life, and
is, therefore, not only compatible with social responsibility and commitment
but is moreover a very effective means of discharging them.
The difference between the zahid and the monk arises from two different
world-outlooks. From the viewpoint of the monk, this world and the next are two
different spheres, separate from and unrelated to each other. To him, happiness
in this world is not only independent of happiness in the next but is
incompatible with it. He considers the two forms of happiness as irreconcilable
contradictories. Naturally, that which leads to felicity and happiness in this
world is considered different from the works and deeds which lead to success in
the Hereafter. In other words, the means of acquiring happiness in this world
and the next are regarded as being incompatible and contradictory. It is
imagined that a single work and action cannot simultaneously be a means for
acquiring happiness in both the worlds.
But in the world-view of the zahid, the world and the Hereafter are
interconnected. The world is a preamble to the Hereafter. It is a farm of which
the Hereafter is the harvest. From the zahid's viewpoint, that which gives
order, security, uprightness, prosperity, and flourish to life is application
of other-worldly criteria to the life of this world.
The essence of felicity and happiness in the other world lies in successful
accomplishment of commitments and responsibilities of this world, performed with
faith, piety, purity, and taqwa.
In truth, the zahid's concept of zuhd and the monk's rationale for his
asceticism are incompatible and contradictory to each other. Basically,
monasticism is a deviation introduced by men into the teachings of prophets, due
to ignorance or vested interests. Now we shall explain the philosophy of zuhd
in the light of the teachings of the Islamic texts.
Zuhd and Altruism:
One of the ingredients of zuhd is altruism. Ithar (altruism) and atharah
(egoism) are derived from the same root. Atharah means giving precedence to
one's interests over those of others. In other words it implies monopolizing
everything for oneself and depriving others. But Ithar means preferring others
over oneself and bearing hardship for the comfort and good of others.
The zahid, by virtue of his simple, humble, and content living, is hard upon
himself so that others may live in ease. He sacrifices for the sake of the
needy because with his sensitive heart which feels the pains of others he can
relish the world's bounties only when there does not exist a single man
oppressed by need. He derives greater satisfaction by feeding and clothing
others and working for their ease than if he did those things for himself. He
endures deprivation, hunger, and pain, so that others may be well fed and live
without hardships.
Ithar represents the most magestic and sublime manifestation of human
greatness, and only very great human beings climb to its noble heights.
The Holy Quran refers to the episode of the self-sacrifice of 'Ali ('a) and his
honoured family in the glorious verses of the Surat Hal ata. 'Ali, Fatimah, and
their sons once gave away whatever they had-which was no more than a few loaves
of bread-to the poor for the sake of God, and despite their own distress. That
is why this story circulated among the angels and a verse of the Quran was
revealed in the praise of their act.
Once when the Holy Prophet ('s) came to visit Hadrat al-Zahra' ('s), observing
that his daughter had put on a silver bracelet and hung a new curtain on the
door, signs of unease appeared upon his face. Al-Zahra' ('a) was quick to
discern the cause of her father's reaction. When the Prophet ('s) left, without
losing time, she took out her bracelet and removing the curtain from the door,
sent them to be carried to the Prophet ('s) so that he might give them to the
needy. When al-Zahra's messenger brought them to the Prophet ('s) he looked at
them with amazement. He was glad that his daughter had taken the hint and
foregone her simplest luxuries for the benefit of others.
'The neighbours first', was the maxim in the household of 'Ali ('a) and Fatimah
('a). In khutbah 193, which describes the qualities of the pious, 'Ali ('a)
says:
The man of [taqwa] subjects his own self to hardships so that the people may
live in comfort.
The Holy Quran describes the Ansar (the Helpers), who in spite of their poverty
welcomed the Muhajirun (the Emigrants) as their own brethren, giving them
preference over their own selves, in these words:
They love whosoever has migrated to them, not finiding in their breasts any
need for what they have been given, and prefer others above themselves, even
though poverty be their lot ... (59:9)
Obviously, the altruistic ingredient of zuhd comes into play only under certain
conditions. In an affluent society, altruism is less frequently required. But
in conditions where poverty and deprivation are prevalent-as in the society of
al-Madinah during the Prophet's time-its need is greater. This is one of the
secrets of the apparent difference of the life-styles of 'Ali ('a) and the Holy
Prophet ('s) with the rest of the Imams ('a).
In any case, zuhd with its underlying altruistic motives has nothing in common
with monasticism and escape from society; instead it is a product of man's
gregarious instincts and a manifestation of his noblest feelings, which
reinforce the social bonds between fellow human beings.
Notes:
[6] Ibid., Khutab 157
[7] See Guftar e mah, vol. I, the second speech
[8] Ibid., Khutab 191
[9] Ibid.,
[10] Bihar al Anwar, vol. XV Bab al nahy an al rahbaniyyah wa al siyahah. Rumi
in the sixth part of his Mathnawi, refers to this tradition in the story of the
bird and the hunter.