The Three Essential
Principles:
1. Enjoyments derived from the physical, material, and natural means of life
are not sufficient for man's happiness and felicity. A series of spiritual
needs are inbuilt in the human nature, without whose satisfaction the enjoyment
provided by material means of life is not enough to make man truly happy.
2. The individual's felicity and happiness is not separable from that of
society. Since man is emotionally bound to his society, and carries within him
a sense of responsibility towards it, his individual happiness cannot be
independent of the prosperity and peace of his fellow men.
3. The soul, despite its fusion and a kind of unity with the body, has a
reality of its own. It is a principle in addition to the body which constitutes
another principle in itself. The soul is an independent source of pleasure and
pain. Like the body, or rather even more than it, it stands in need of
nourishment, training, growth, and development. The soul, however, cannot
dispense with the health and vigour of the body. At the same time, it is
undeniable that total indulgence in physical pleasures and complete immersion
into the delights of sensual experiences does not leave any opportunity for
realizing the soul's unlimited possibilities. Therefore, there exists a kind of
incompatibility between physical enjoyment and spiritual satisfaction. This is
especially true if the attention and attachment to physical needs were carried
to the very extreme of total immersion and absorption.
It is not true that all sorrow and grief are related to the soul and that all
pleasures are derived from the body. In fact, the spiritual pleasures are much
profounder, purer, and lasting than bodily pleasures. To sum up, one-sided
attention to physical pleasures and material enjoyments finally results in
compromising the total human happiness. Therefore, if we want to make our lives
happy, rich, pure, majestic, attractive, and beautiful, we cannot afford to
ignore the spiritual aspects of our being.
With due attention to these principles, the meaning of zuhd in Islam becomes
clear. The knowledge of these principles allows us to understand why Islam
rejects monasticism but welcomes a form of asceticism which is rooted in the
very heart of life and in the context of social existence. We shall explain the
meaning of zuhd in Islamic texts on the basis of these three principles.
The Zahid and the Monk:
We said that Islam encourages zuhd but condemns monasticism. Both the zahid and
the ascetic monk seek abstinence from pleasures and enjoyments. But the monk
evades life in society and the respon-sibilities and the duties it entails,
regarding them as the low and mean facets of worldly existence, and takes
refuge in mountains or monasteries. On the other hand, the zahid accepts
society with its norms, ideals, duties, and commitments. Both the zahid and the
monk are otherworldly, but the zahid is a social otherworldly. Also their
attitudes to abstinence from pleasures are not identical; the monk disdains
hygiene and cleanliness and derides married life and procreation. The zahid, on
the contrary, considers hygiene and cleanliness, matrimony and parenthood to be
a part of his duties. Both the zahid and the monk are ascetics, but whereas the
'world' renounced by the zahid is indulgence and immersion in pleasures,
luxuries, and comforts (he rejects the attitude which considers them to be
life's ultimate goal and objective), the 'world' renounced by the monk includes
life's work and activity, and the duty and responsibility which go with social
life. That is why the zahid's zuhd operates in the midst of social life, and
is, therefore, not only compatible with social responsibility and commitment
but is moreover a very effective means of discharging them.
The difference between the zahid and the monk arises from two different world-outlooks.
From the viewpoint of the monk, this world and the next are two different
spheres, separate from and unrelated to each other. To him, happiness in this
world is not only independent of happiness in the next but is incompatible with
it. He considers the two forms of happiness as irreconcilable contradictories.
Naturally, that which leads to felicity and happiness in this world is
considered different from the works and deeds which lead to success in the
Hereafter. In other words, the means of acquiring happiness in this world and
the next are regarded as being incompatible and contradictory. It is imagined
that a single work and action cannot simultaneously be a means for acquiring
happiness in both the worlds.
But in the world-view of the zahid, the world and the Hereafter are
interconnected. The world is a preamble to the Hereafter. It is a farm of which
the Hereafter is the harvest. From the zahid's viewpoint, that which gives
order, security, uprightness, prosperity, and flourish to life is application
of other-worldly criteria to the life of this world.
The essence of felicity and happiness in the other world lies in successful
accomplishment of commitments and responsibilities of this world, performed
with faith, piety, purity, and taqwa.
In truth, the zahid's concept of zuhd and the monk's rationale for his
asceticism are incompatible and contradictory to each other. Basically,
monasticism is a deviation introduced by men into the teachings of prophets,
due to ignorance or vested interests. Now we shall explain the philosophy of
zuhd in the light of the teachings of the Islamic texts.
Zuhd and Altruism:
One of the ingredients of zuhd is altruism. Ithar (altruism) and atharah
(egoism) are derived from the same root. Atharah means giving precedence to
one's interests over those of others. In other words it implies monopolizing
everything for oneself and depriving others. But Ithar means preferring others
over oneself and bearing hardship for the comfort and good of others.
The zahid, by virtue of his simple, humble, and content living, is hard upon
himself so that others may live in ease. He sacrifices for the sake of the
needy because with his sensitive heart which feels the pains of others he can
relish the world's bounties only when there does not exist a single man
oppressed by need. He derives greater satisfaction by feeding and clothing
others and working for their ease than if he did those things for himself. He
endures deprivation, hunger, and pain, so that others may be well fed and live
without hardships.
Ithar represents the most magestic and sublime manifestation of human
greatness, and only very great human beings climb to its noble heights.
The Holy Quran refers to the episode of the self-sacrifice of 'Ali ('a) and his
honoured family in the glorious verses of the Surat Hal ata. 'Ali, Fatimah, and
their sons once gave away whatever they had-which was no more than a few loaves
of bread-to the poor for the sake of God, and despite their own distress. That
is why this story circulated among the angels and a verse of the Quran was
revealed in the praise of their act.
Once when the Holy Prophet ('s) came to visit Hadrat al-Zahra' ('s), observing
that his daughter had put on a silver bracelet and hung a new curtain on the
door, signs of unease appeared upon his face. Al-Zahra' ('a) was quick to
discern the cause of her father's reaction. When the Prophet ('s) left, without
losing time, she took out her bracelet and removing the curtain from the door,
sent them to be carried to the Prophet ('s) so that he might give them to the
needy. When al-Zahra's messenger brought them to the Prophet ('s) he looked at
them with amazement. He was glad that his daughter had taken the hint and
foregone her simplest luxuries for the benefit of others.
'The neighbours first', was the maxim in the household of 'Ali ('a) and Fatimah
('a). In khutbah 193, which describes the qualities of the pious, 'Ali ('a)
says:
The man of [taqwa] subjects his own self to hardships so that the people may
live in comfort.
The Holy Quran describes the Ansar (the Helpers), who in spite of their poverty
welcomed the Muhajirun (the Emigrants) as their own brethren, giving them
preference over their own selves, in these words:
They love whosoever has migrated to them, not finiding in their breasts any
need for what they have been given, and prefer others above themselves, even
though poverty be their lot ... (59:9)
Obviously, the altruistic ingredient of zuhd comes into play only under certain
conditions. In an affluent society, altruism is less frequently required. But
in conditions where poverty and deprivation are prevalent-as in the society of
al-Madinah during the Prophet's time-its need is greater. This is one of the
secrets of the apparent difference of the life-styles of 'Ali ('a) and the Holy
Prophet ('s) with the rest of the Imams ('a).
In any case, zuhd with its underlying altruistic motives has nothing in common
with monasticism and escape from society; instead it is a product of man's
gregarious instincts and a manifestation of his noblest feelings, which
reinforce the social bonds between fellow human beings.
Sympathy and Kindness:
The sympathy and the willingness to share the suffering of the needy and the
deprived is another ingredient of zuhd. When the destitute witness the luxuries
and comforts of the richer classes, their anguish is multiplied. To the
hardships of poverty and destitution is added the stinging feeling of
deprivation and backwardness in relation to others.
Man, by nature, cannot tolerate to remain a silent spectator while others who
have no merit over him eat, drink, enjoy and relish freely at the cost of his
deprivation. When society is divided into haves and have-nots, the man of God
considers himself responsible. In the first place, as Amir al-Mu'minin ('a) says,
he should strive to change the situation which permits the gluttony of the rich
oppressor and the hunger of the oppressed, in accordance with the covenant of
God with the learned men of the Ummah.[11] In the second place, he strives to
ameliorate the state of affairs through altruism and self-sacrifice, by sharing
whatever he possesses with the needy and the deprived. But when he sees that
the situation has deteriorated beyond reparation and it is practically
impossible to alleviate the misery of the poor through sympathy, he practically
shares their deprivation and tries to soothe their wounded hearts by adopting a
life-style similar to that of the poor.
Sympathy with others and sharing their suffering is of essential importance
especially in the case of the leaders of the Ummah on whom all eyes are fixed.
'Ali ('a), more than at any other time, lived a severely ascetic life during
the days of his caliphate. He used to say:
Indeed God has made it obligatory for just leaders that they should maintain
themselves at the level of the poor class so that they do not despair of their
distress.[12]
Should I be content with being called 'Amir al-Mu'minin' while refusing to
share the adversities of the times with the people? Or should I be an example
to them in the distress of life?[13]
In the same letter (to 'Uthman ibn Hunayf) he says:
It is absolutely out of question that my desires should overpower me and my
greed should lead me to relish choicest foods while in the Hijaz and Yamamah
there may be some people who despair of even a single loaf of bread and who do
not get a full meal. Shall I lie with a satiated belly while around me are
those whose stomachs are hungry and whose livers are burning?[14]
At the same time, 'Ali ('a) would reproach anyone else for practising the same
kind of asceticism in life. When faced with their objection as to why he
himself practised it, he would reply, "I am not like you. The leaders have
a different duty." This approach of 'Ali ('a) can be observed in the
conversation with 'Asim ibn Ziyad al-Harith.[15]
In volume IX of the Bihar al-'anwar, it has been related from al-Kafi that Amir
al-Mu'minin ('a) said:
God has appointed me the leader of the people and made it my duty to adopt a
way of living, in food and clothing, on a par with the poorest classes of
society, so that, on the one hand, it may soothe the distress of the poor and,
on the other, restrain the rich from revolting.[16]
An incident is related from the life of the great faqih Wahid Behbahani, may
God be pleased with him. One day he observed one of his daughters-in-law
wearing a garment made of a fabric usually worn by women of rich families of
those days. He reproached his son (the late Aqa Muhammad Isma'il, the lady's
husband) in that regard. The son recited this verse of the Quran in reply to
his father's remarks:
Say: 'Who has forbidden the ornament of God which He has brought forth for His
servants, and the good things of His providing? (7:32)
The father said: "I don't say that putting on good dress, eating good
food, and making use of God's bounties is forbidden. Not at all. Such
restrictions do not exist in Islam. However, there is one thing to be
remembered. We are a family charged with the duty of the religious leadership
of Muslims and have special responsibilities. When the people of poor families
see the rich live luxuriously, their frustration is aggravated. Their only
consolation is that at least the 'Aqa's family' lives like they do. Now if we
too adopt the life-styles of the rich, that will deprive them of their only
consolation. However, we cannot practically change the present social
condition, but let us not grudge at least this much of sympathy."
As can be clearly seen, zuhd, which derives motivation from sympathy and
readiness to share the sufferings of others, has nothing common with monastic
asceticism. It is not based on escapism from society. The Islamic conception of
zuhd is a means of alleviating the sufferings of society.
Zuhd and Freedom:
Another ingredient of zuhd is love of freedom and independence. The union
between zuhd and freedom is as primordial as it is indissoluble.
The dictates of need and exigency are the criteria of opportunists, whereas
independence from want is characteristic of free men. The deepest aspiration of
the free men unattached to the world is unencumbrance, buoyancy, absence of
hindrance, and freedom of movement.
As a result they adopt zuhd and contentment so as to reduce their wants to a
minimum, liberating their selves from the bondage of need, of things and
persons.
The life of a human being, like that of any other animal, requires a series of
natural and indispensable necessities, like air, shelter, bread, water, and
clothing. Man cannot free himself entirely from attachment to such needs and
other things such as light and heat so as to make himself, in philosophical
terminology, "self-sustaining" (muktafi bidhatih).
However, there are a series of other wants which are not necessary and natural,
but are imposed upon one in the course of one's life either by oneself, or by
social and historical factors beyond his control, which nevertheless set limits
upon his freedom. Such constraints are not very dangerous as long as they are
not transformed into inner needs, such as certain political constraints and
compulsions. The most dangerous of compulsions are those which emerge as inner
needs from within one's own self and shackle him.
The mechanism of these needs, which lead to inner weakness, impotence, and
defeat, operates in such a way that when one turns to luxuries and comforts in
order to add charm, delight, and glamour to one's life so as to feel more
secure and strong in order to derive greater gratification from life, one is
impelled to possess more and more things. In the course of time one gets
gradually accustomed to and engrossed in the means of one's comfort, luxury,
and power. These habits gradually result in deeper attachment to and love for
those things, and he is bound to them with invisible bonds, thus becoming
helpless and impotent in front of them. That is, the same thing which had once
added charm and delight to his life later deprives his personality of its
vigour, and the same thing which once made him feel powerful against nature now
turns him into a helpless slave without a will of his own.
Man's inclination towards zuhd is rooted in his love of freedom. By nature he
is disposed toward possession of things and their exploitation; but when he
realizes that the things, to the very extent they make him outwardly powerful
and successful, inwardly transform him into a weakling without will-power and a
slave, he rebels against this slavery. This rebellion of man is what we call
zuhd.
Our poets and sages have spoken a lot about freedom and liberation. Hafiz calls
himself 'the slave of the magnanimity of him who is free of everything under
the blue sky that carries any taint of attachment.' Among the trees, he admires
the cypress which to him seems 'free of all woes.' What those great men meant
by 'freedom' is freedom from attachment, freedom from being possessed, bewitched,
and captivated by anything.
But freedom implies something greater than being devoid of attachments. The
ties which make a man weak, helpless, dependent, and impotent are not only
those which originate in the heart or emotional attachments; to these must be
added the various bodily, physical and psychological conditionings and
artificial appendages that are first acquired for adding charm and glory to
life and for satisfaction of the lust for power and strength, later growing
into a form of addiction or rather becoming a second nature. These, while they
may not involve one's emotional attachments, or may even be regarded by one as
reprehensible, should be counted as even stronger means of human servitude and
which may bring greater even degradation than emotional attachments.
Take the example of an enlightened 'arif with a heart free of worldly
attachments, for whom, nevertheless, addiction to tea, tobacco or opium has
become a second nature, or for whom abstention from foods to which he is
accustomed may endanger his life. Can such a man lead a free existence?
Liberty from attachments is a necessary condition of freedom, but it is not
sufficient in itself. Accustoming oneself to a minimum of the niceties of life
and abstention from affluent living is another condition of freedom.
The first thing to strike Abu Sa'id al-Khudri, one of the honoured Companions,
when describing the station of the Holy Prophet ('s), is:
The Prophet of God, may peace be upon him and his Household, could manage with
the minimum necessities of life.
Is it a merit to be able to do with a minimum of means? If we take only the
economic aspect into view, we should say that the Prophet's level of
consumption was quite low. In this respect, therefore, the answer would be:
"No, not at all; it is not a significant merit." But if viewed from a
spiritual viewpoint, that is when examined by the criterion of freedom from
worldly bondages, we have to admit that it is a great merit indeed. Because it
is only by acquisition of this merit that a human being can live with any
measure of unfettered freedom and unimpeded mobility, and participate in the
incessant struggle of life with agility and vigour.
This matter is not restricted to habits involving the individual; binding
oneself to social habits and customs, to modes and manners of dealing with
people, the mesh of social connections and gatherings, adherence to styles and
fashions in dress and demeanour-these and the like of these encumber life and
deprive it of dynamism
Freedom of movement in the arena of life is like swimming; lesser the
interference and incumbrance for the swimmer, the greater is his ability to
move around in water. Too many attachments will not only deprive him of his
mobility but bring the danger of drowning.
Athir al-Din Akhsikati (d. 577 or 579/1181 or 1183) says:
To cross the river of life, shed your robes;
Nakedness is a condition of keeping afloat.
Farrukhi Yazdi says:
Of nakedness the sage does not complain,
A sword of good steel would not rust without a sheath.
Baba Tahir has a ruba'i which though intended for some other purpose is
nevertheless relevant here:
O heart, thy path is better when covered with thorns;
Thy track is better when stretched on heavens high;
Nay, if thou can strip the skin off thine flesh,
Do it, for the lighter thy burden the better it be.
Sa'di, too, relates a relevant fable in the chapter 7 of his Gulistan, although
it also aims at some other purpose:
I saw a rich mans son squatting by the side of his father's grave, and bragging
thus before a darwish's son: 'My father's tomb is constructed of rare stones.
Inside, it is paved with marble with enlaid turquois. And look at the one of
your father's! An unbaked brick or two was fetched, on which a handful of earth
was thrown.'
The sage's son heard these remarks and replied: 'Yet before your father is able
to budge under the pile of those stones, my father would have reached the
paradise itself.'
These are allegories underlining the significance of lightness and freedom from
bondages, which is the essential condition for dynamism, nobility, and
nimbleness. Leaps, movements, and struggles were achieved by individuals who
were practically freer of bondages and attachments; that is, in some sense they
were zahids. Gandhi, with his ascetic mode of life, brought the British
imperialism to its knees. Ya'qub Layth Saffar, in his own words, 'did not set
aside his diet of bread and onions until he became a terror for the caliph.' In
our own times, the Vietcongs were such an example. Their surprising power of resistance
was drawn from what in Islamic idiom has been called 'lightness of provisions'.
A Vietcong could sustain for days in his shelter with a handful of rice and
continue his battle with the enemy.
Which leader, religious or political, living in luxury and comfort has brought
about drastic upheavals in world history? Which monarch who founded a dynasty,
having transferred power from another family to his own, has been a lover of
luxuries and comforts?
'Ali ibn Abi Talib, may peace be upon him, was the freest of the world's free
men. He was a free man in the complete sense of the word, because he was a
zahid in the profoundest sense of the word. 'Ali ('a), in the Nahj al-balaghah,
lays great emphasis on renunciation of worldly pleasures and comforts as a means
of liberation. In one of the hikam (aphorisms), he says:
Greed is everlasting slavery.[17]
In a sermon he describes the zuhd of Jesus ('a), the son of Mary, in these
words:
He was free of any abasing greed.[18]
At another place he says:
The world is a place of transit, not a place to abide. Its people fall into two
categories: those who sell away their souls into slavery, and those who ransom
their souls and liberate them.[19]
In a letter to 'Uthman ibn Hunayf, 'Ali ('a) is more explicit than elsewhere.
Towards the end of the letter, addressing the world and its pleasures, he
reveals to us the philosophy of zuhd and the secrets of renunciation:
O world! Get away from me! I have thrown thy reins on thy shoulders, have freed
myself from thy claws, and released myself from thy snares .... Go, get thee
away! By God, I shall not surrender to thee so that thou should abase me! I
shall not follow thee tractably that thou may control me and lead me wherever
thou willeth.
Yes. 'Ali's zuhd is a rebellion against abasement and indignity on account of
pleasures. It is a rebellion against human weakness and impotence before the
tyranny of desires. It is a defiance of servitude to the world and
obsequiousness before its charms.
Zuhd and Spirituality: Zuhd,
Love, and Worship:
Another fountainhead of zuhd and renunciation of hedonism is the aspiration to
avail of spiritual bounties. Presently we do not intend to undertake any
argument to the effect that man and the universe possess an undeniable
spiritual aspect. It is another story by itself. It is evident that from a
materialistic outlook of the world, the rejection of hedonism, materialism, and
love of money and wealth as a prerequisite for acquisition of spiritual virtues
is devoid of any meaning.
We have, here, nothing to say about the followers of materialism as a school of
thought. At present, we address only those who have experienced the aroma of
spirituality. For, anybody who has smelled its fragrance knows that as long as
one does not liberate oneself from the bondage of desire, as long as the infant
soul is not weaned away from the breasts of nature, and as long as the material
aspects of life are seen as not being the ultimate end of life and are seen as
means, the domain of the heart is not ready for the emergence of chaste
emotions, majestic thoughts, and angelic feelings. That is why, it is said,
that zuhd is the essential condition for exuberance of gnosis and is
inalienably linked with it.
The worship of God, in its real sense, that is, ardour of love and zeal of
devotion and service in the way of God, His constant presence in thoughts and
His remembrance, the sense of delight and ecstasy in His adoration and
worship-it is not at all compatible with self-adoration, hedonist attitude, and
being captured by the glamour and charm of material things.
The need of zuhd is not characteristic solely of the worship of God; rather,
every kind of love and adoration, whether it pertains to one's country, creed,
conviction, or something else, calls for some kind of zuhd and indifference
towards material aspects of life.
It is characteristic of love and adoration, as opposed to knowledge, science or
philosophy, that they have to deal with the heart and as such do not tolerate
any rivals. Nothing prevents a scientist or a philosopher who is enslaved to
money and wealth from devoting and concentrating his intellectual powers, when
necessary, on the study of the problems of philosophy, logic, physics, or
mathematics. But it is not possible, at the same time, that his heart should be
full to the brim with love, especially love of a spiritual nature, such as for
humanity, or his religion and creed. Certainly, it cannot burn with the light
of Divine love nor can it receive an enlightenment or inspiration of a Divine
sort. Consequently, the essential condition for reception of spiritual grace
and realization of authentic humanhood is purging the temple of the heart from
every trace of materialistic attachments and exterminating from the Ka'bah of
the heart all the idols of gold and silver and destroying them.
As we have said before, we should not be led to misinterpret freedom from the
bondage of gold and silver, and indifference towards what these metals can be
exchanged for, as monastic asceticism which is an attempt to evade responsibility
and commitment. Instead, it is only in the light of such zuhd that
responsibility and commitment reacquire their real significance and are no
longer empty words without content and hollow claims. The personality of 'Ali,
upon whom be peace, is a glorious example of it. In him zuhd and commitment
were combined together. While he was a zahid who had renounced the world, at
the same time, he had a heart that was most sensitive to the demands of social
responsibility. On the one hand he used to say:
What has 'Ali to do with perishable niceties and short-lived pleasures?[20]
On the other hand, a small injustice or the sight of someone in distress was
enough to snatch sleep from his eyes at nights. He was ready to go to bed with
an empty stomach lest someone in his dominion might have remained hungry:
Shall I stuff my belly with delicious foods while in the Hijaz and Yamamah
there may be people who have no hope of getting a loaf of bread or a full
meal?[21]
There was a direct relation between that zuhd of his and this sensitiveness.
Since 'Ali ('a) was a zahid, indifferent to the world and unselfish, with a
heart that overflowed with the exuberance of the love of God, he looked at the
world, from the minutest particle to the greatest star, as a unit entrusted
with responsibility and duty. That is why he was so sensitive towards the
matters of social rights. Had he been a hedonist devoted to his own interests,
he would never have been the responsible and committed person that he was.
The Islamic traditions are eloquent in regard to this philosophy of zuhd and
the Nahj al-balaghah lays particular emphasis upon it. In a hadith, it is
related from al-Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq ('a) that he said:
All hearts that harbour doubt or entertain shirk shall be inauthentic; that is
why they adopted zuhd so that hearts may be emptied and made ready for the
Hereafter. [23]
As can be seen from this tradition, every kind of hedonism and attachment to
pleasures is considered shirk and contrary to the worship of the One God. Mawlana
(Rumi) describes the zuhd of the 'arif in these words:
Zuhd means taking pains while sowing; Mystic knowledge (ma'rifah) is (care
during) its cultivation; The 'arif is the soul of the Law and the spirit of
taqwa; For mystic knowledge is the fruit of the labours of zuhd.
Abu 'Ali Ibn Sina, in the ninth namat of his al-'Isharat, which he devotes to
the description of various stations of the mystics (maqamat al-'arifin),
differentiates between the zuhd of the 'arif and that of the non-'arif. He
writes:
The zahids who have no knowledge of the philosophy of zuhd, make a certain deal
in their imagination: they barter the goods of the world for the goods of the
Hereafter. They forego the enjoyments of the world in order that they may enjoy
the pleasures of the Hereafter. In other words, they abstain here in order to
indulge there. But an aware zahid, acquainted with the philosophy of zuhd,
practises it because of his unwillingness to engage his inner self with
anything other than God. Such a man, out of his self-respect, regards anything
other than God to be unworthy of attention and servitude.
In another section of the same book where he discusses spiritual discipline,
Ibn Sina says:
This training has three ends in view. First, removal of impediments from the path
towards God; second, subjugation of the earnal self (al-nafs al-'ammarah) to
the contented self (al-nafs al-mutma'innah), third, refinement of the inward
(batin).
Then he proceeds to mention the effective means of realization of these three
ends. He tells us that true zuhd helps in achieving the first of these
objectives, that is, removal of impediments, the non-God, from the way.
The Contradiction Between the
World and the Hereafter:
The problem of the conflict between the world and the Hereafter and the
contradiction between them as two opposite poles, such as the north and the
south, which are such that proximity to the one means remoteness from the
other-is related to the world of human heart, conscience, human attachment,
love and worship. God has not given two hearts to man:
God has not assigned to any man two hearts within his breast. (33:4)
With one heart one cannot choose two beloveds. That is why once when questioned
about his old and worn-out clothes, 'Ali ('a) replied:
These make the heart humble, subdue the self, and induce the believers to
follow it as an example.[23]
That is, those who have no new clothes to wear are not ashamed to put on old
and worn-out dress. They no longer feel humiliation on their account for they
see that their leader himself hasn't put on any better. Then 'Ali ('a) goes on
to add that the world and the Hereafter are like two irreconcilable enemies.
They are two divergent paths. Anyone who loves the world and chooses its
bondage is, by nature, led to loathe the Hereafter and detest everything that
is related to it. The world and the Hereafter are like the east and the west,
the north and the south. Anyone who approaches the one gets farther from the
other. They are like two wives.
In one of his epistles, he writes:
I swear by God that, God willing, I shall so discipline my own self that it
would rejoice to have a single loaf of bread for eating and be content with
only salt to season it. (In prayer) I shall empty my eyes of tears until they
become like dried up springs. The cattle fill their stomachs on the pasture and
lie down to repose. The goats graze, devour green herbs, and enter their
enclosures. Should 'Ali in a similar manner swallow whatever he ean lay his
hands on and lie down to doze'? Congratulations! For, if he does that' after
long years he has chosen to follow the wild grazing animals and the cattle led
out to pasture.[24]
Then he goes on to add:
Happy is the man who fulfils his duties to God and overcomes hardships like a
mill grinding the grain, who allows himself no sleep at nights and when it
overpowers him lies down on the ground with his hand for a pillow. He is
accompanied by those who keep their eyes awake in fear of the Day of Judgement,
whose bodies are ever away from their beds, whose lips constantly hum in the
Lord's remembrance, whose sins have been erased by prolonged supplications for
forgiveness. They are the party of Allah; why surely Allah's party-they are the
prosperers. (58:22)[25]
The two passages quoted above completely illustrate the relation-ship between
zuhd and spirituality. To sum up, one has to choose one of the two paths;
either to drink, eat, browse and hanker after sensual pleasures in utter
indifference to the secrets of the spirit, to avoid the agonies of love and its
tears, to speak not of enlightenment and progress, not to take a step beyond
the threshold of bestiality; or to resolve on a journey into the valley of
authentic humanhood, towards the effulgence and-exuberance of Divine grace
which descends upon chaste hearts and enlightened souls.
Zuhd: Minimum of Intake for
Maximum Output:
Some days ago I was in Isfahan on a visit for a few days. During it, in a
gathering of the learned, a discussion started about zuhd. The various aspects
of it were scrutinized in the light of the multifaceted teachings of Islam.
Everyone wanted to find a comprehensive and articulate definition of zuhd.
Among them a learned high school teacher, [27] who (I later came to know, that
he was writing a treatise on the subject, the manuscript of which he showed me
later) suggested a wonderfully eloquent definition of zuhd. He said:
Islamic zuhd is minimizing the intake and maximizing the output.
This definition fascinated me and I saw that it was in conformity with my own
earlier understanding and the conclusions that I have drawn in the foregoing
chapters. Here I, with the permission of that learned man, making a little
amendment in his definition, would say:
Zuhd in Islam means drawing a minimum of intake for the sake of maximizing the
output.
That is, there exists a relation between drawing as little as possible of
material benefits of life on the one hand and aiming at maximizing one's output
on the other. Human 'outputs', whether in the sphere of the actualization of
one's potentialities, whether on the level of emotion and morality, or from the
point of view of individuals role in social co-operation and mutual help, or
from the aspect of realizing spiritual edification and refinement, all in all
have a converse relationship to his intake of material benefits.
It is a human characteristic that the greater one's enjoyment of material
benefits and indulgence in such things as pleasures, luxuries, and affluence,
the greater is one's weakness, indignity, impotence, sterility, and
impoverishment. Conversely, abstinence from indulgent and extravagant enjoyment
of nature-of course, within definite limits-refines and purifies human nature
and invigorates and strengthens two of the highest of all human powers: thought
and will .
It is true only of animals that greater benefit from the possibilities provided
by nature contributes to their animal development and perfection. Even in
animals it is not applicable when we consider what is called the 'merit'
desirable in a beast. For example, sheep and cattle which are reared for
obtaining greater amount of meat, milk, or fleece should be given greater
attention and care and fed well. However, this is not true of a race horse. It
is impossible for a common stable horse to show any good performance in a race.
The horse which has to run and win races is given days or rather months of
training with a controlled diet until its body becomes lean and nimble,
shedding all its excessive fat so that it can acquire the desirable agility and
speed or the 'excellence' of which it is capable.
Zuhd is also an exercise and discipline for man. But it is the exercise of the
soul. Through zuhd the soul is disciplined; shedding all excessive appendages,
and becoming, as a result, light, agile, and nimble, it takes an easy flight
into the skies of spiritual merits.
Incidentally, 'Ali ('a) also describes taqwa and zuhd as 'exercise' and
practice. The word riyadah originally meant exercising horses intended for
racing. Physical exercise is also called riyadah. 'Ali ('a) says:
Indeed, as to my self, I shall exercise it and discipline it through taqwa.[27]
What about plant life? Like animals that which may be, loosely speaking, called
the merit of a tree or shrub is its capacity to thrive with a minimum amount of
nourishment from nature. 'Ali ('a), also, makes an allusion to this point in
one of his letters to his governors. In that letter, after describing his own
ascetic life-style, characterized by a minimum of consumption, 'Ali ('a)
encourages him to emulate it. He says:
I can already anticipate your criticism. Someone might say that if this is what
the son of Abu Talib eats then weakness should have made him unfit for an
encounter with the enemy's warriors. Remember the untended tree that thrives in
the harsh conditions of the desert-its wood is firm and tough; even the fire
lit from it is more enduring and fierce.
This law, which applies to all living things, is more effective in the case of
man because of the various characteristics special to him which are summed up
under the term 'human personality'.[28]
The word 'zuhd', despite its sublime human meaning, has suffered an evil fate,
and is fiercely denounced particularly in our own times. Sometimes, the term is
advertently or otherwise misinterpreted; some-times it is equated with sanctimoniousness
and show of piety; at other times, it is considered equivalent to monasticism
and ascetic seclusion. Everybody is free to coin terms of his own with any
meaning of his own choice. But no one has the right to condemn any concept or
term by imparting to it a wrong and misconceived meaning and sense. In its
system of ethics and education, Islam has used a certain term, zuhd. The Nahj
al-balaghah and the Islamic tradition are replete with it. Before we make any
judgement about zuhd in Islam, first, before everything, we must understand its
Islamic connotation. The meaning of zuhd in Islam is what we have tried to
explain, and the philosophy behind it is what we have discussed in the light of
Islamic texts. If anyone finds any fault with this meaning and philosophy, let
him inform me so that I too might be benefited.
What school of thought and what kind of logic can justify monasticism? What
school of thought can recommend and justify the worship of money, consumerism,
love of goods, lust for position, or-to use an expression which includes them
all-worldliness? Is it possible for man to be the slave and prisoner of
material things-or in the words of Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali ('a), 'the slave of
the world and the slave of him who exercises control over it'-and yet speak of
'human personality'?
Here, it would not be out of place to cite the views of a Marxist writer about
the relation between love of money and human personality. In a useful and
concise book regarding capitalist and Marxist economies, he points out the
moral consequences of the power of money for society. He writes:
The extraordinary power of 'gold' over our contemporary society is something
deeply detested by men of sensitive nature. Men in search of truth have always
expressed their strong aversion towards this filthy metal, and consider it to
be the main cause of corruption in contemporary society. However, those little
round pieces of a shining yellow metal called 'gold' are really not to be
blamed. The power and domination of money as a general manifestation of power
and authority of things over man is the essential characteristic of a
disorderly economy based on barter and exchange. In the same way as the
uncivilized man of ancient times adored and worshipped idols made by his own
hands, the contemporary man also worships the product of his own labour, and
his life is overwhelmed by the power of things he has made with his own hands.
In order that the worship of consumer goods and the worship of money, which is
the filthiest form evolved of idolatry, may be completely eradicated, the
social causes which brought them into existence should be eliminated and the
society should be so organized that the power and authority of the little coins
of this yellow brilliant metal would be thoroughly obliterated. In such an
organization of society, things will no more wield their present power over
human beings. On the other hand, man's power and predominance over things shall
be absolute and according to a preconceived scheme. Then worship of money and
things shall give their place to honour and reverence for the human
personality.
We agree with the author that the power of things over man, and in particular
the authority of money, is opposed to the demands of human dignity and
nobility, and is as condemnable as idolatry. However, we do not agree with his
suggested exclusive prescription for solution of this problem.
Here we are not concerned with the question whether collective ownership is
preferable from a social or economic point of view. Nevertheless, morally
speaking, this suggestion, instead of redeeming society's spirit of honesty,
eliminates right away the very object of honesty!
Man can reclaim his identity only by liberating himself from the power of money
and by bringing money under his own control. True human personality can emerge
when the danger of money and goods remains possible without overcoming man, who
is not ruled by them but rules them. This kind of personality is what Islam
calls zuhd.
In the educational system of Islam, man regains his personality without the
need to obliterate the right of property. Those who are trained in the school
of Islamic teachings are equipped with the power of zuhd. They strip money and
goods of their power and subjugate them to their own authority.
Notes:
[1] Nahj al-balaghah, Khutab, No. 51 pp. 88-89
[2] Ibid., Khutab 16
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid., Khutab 114
[5] Ibid., Khutab 191
[6] Ibid., Khutab 157
[7] See Guftar e mah, vol. I, the second speech
[8] Ibid., Khutab 191
[9] Ibid.,
[10] Bihar al Anwar, vol. XV Bab al nahy an al rahbaniyyah wa al siyahah. Rumi
in the sixth part of his Mathnawi, refers to this tradition in the story of the
bird and the hunter.
[11] This is a reference to to Khutab No. 3 p. 50
[12] Ibid,. Khutab 209
[13]Ibid., Khutab 45
[14] Ibid.,
[15] Ibid., Khutab 209
[16] Bihar al-anwar (Tabriz)(Vol IX. p. 758)
[17] Nahj al-balaghah, Hikam,No. 103
[18] Ibid, Khutab, No. 160
[19] Ibid, Khutab, No. 133
[20] Ibid, Khutab, No. 224
[21] Ibid, Kutub, No. 45
[22] al Kulayni, al Kafi, vol. III p 194-5
[23] Nahj al-balaghah, Hikam, No. 103
[24] Ibid., Kutub, No. 45
[25] Ibid., 420
[26] The person referred here is Akbar Parwarish
[27] Ibid., Kutub 45
[28] Usul e Iqtisad e Nuhsin, "Shakl e arzish e pul".