The Shia (True Followers) of Imam Ali (A.S.)

When Imam ‘Ali b. Musa al-Riza (as) was requested to make his way to the city of tus (present day Mashad) and was ordered to be the heir-apparent of Ma’mun al-Rashid, a group of the Shi’a came to see him and requested permission to enter into his presence.

The Imam asked his servant who the people at the door were to which the servant replied that, 'They claim that they are the Shi’a of ‘Ali.'

The Imam told his servant to tell them that he was busy and that they should leave - not granting them permission to enter into his presence. This same scene continued for a second day, third day and went on for a period of two months. Every day they would come, ask for permission to see the Imam, however he did not grant them an audience. This continued until the people gave up all hope of meeting the Imam.

On the final day this group of people told the servant that, 'Tell the Imam that we are the Shi’a of his father, ‘Ali b. Abi Talib (as) and that the plots of our enemies will intensify at hearing about the separation of the Imam from us. If we are to return back to our home town after being in tus for two months and the people ask us if we had a chance to visit the Imam and we tell them that he did not give us the permission to meet him then none shall respect us.'

The servant went to the Imam and told him what these people said and at this point, the Imam permitted them to meet him.

After they entered into the presence of the Imam and greeted him, however he did not reply their greting. They desired to sit down however the Imam did not give them the permission to do so. The people began to cry and while standing said, 'O' Son of the Messenger of Allah! What have we done to you that you are acting in this way towards us??

The Imam replied, 'You claim that you are the Shi’a of ‘Ali whereas the true Shi’a of ‘Ali are people like Hasan, Husayn, Abu Dharr, Salman, Miqdad and Muhammad b. Abu Bakr.'

These people replied, 'We ask forgiveness, what else can we say?'

The Imam replied to them, “Say that you are the lovers of ‘Ali.'

When the people said this, then the Imam ordered his servant to show these people kindness.'[81]

Truly, this tradition is one which should spiritually move us.

We normally state that we (Iran) are the country of the true followers (Shi’a) of ‘Ali b. Abi Talib (as), where as those who met and had close contact with the Imam are much better than we are! Thus, it is clear that the claim of being a Shi’a is something very high.

In relation to the characteristics of the Shi’a, Imam Ja’far b. Muhammad as-Sadiq (as) has stated that:

إِنَّمَا أَصْحَابِي مَنْ لَهُ أَشَدُّ الْوَرَعَ وَ خَافَ مِنْ عِقَابِ اللٌّهِ وَ رَجَآءَ ثَوَابِ اللٌّهِ - هٌؤُلاَءِ أَصْحَابِي

.“Truly my companions are only those who are the strongest in Wara’, fear the punishment of Allah and are hopeful of the reward of Allah - these are my companions.”

As we know, Taqwa is a lower level of Wara’, as Taqwa means that we keep away from sins, whereas Wara’ means that we keep away from doubtful things.

Imam Ja’far b. Muhammad as-Sadiq (as) has said that, “My companions are those who are the strongest in Wara’; fearful of Allah; are hopeful of His reward and surround themselves with the commandments of Allah.”

We have taken the issue of being a Shi’a as something very simple to attain such that through the mere performance of the Tawassul, Ziyarat and Du’a, we consider ourselves as Shi’a! We do not wish to lower the worth and value of Tawassul and Ziyarat, however there are many other things which must be performed - and this is what it means to be a Shi’a.

To be a Shi’a means to be self-sacrificing; show altruism; possess cognizance of Allah; be a person of Taqwa, and other such ethical traits. Our entire life, our house, our market place, our religious programs, our travels, our entire presence must all take on the aroma of Wilayah of the Ahlu'l Bayt (as).

Thus, we must first start with ourselves and families and must implement the Wilayat which Imam ‘Ali b. Musa al-Riza (as) has spoken of in the tradition under discussion.

Therefore, those of us who make the claim of being a Shi’a must first ask repentance for lying! We must first start with ourselves and our own purification and attainment of the rank of being a Shi’a, and must realize that to be a Shi’a of ‘Ali (as) does not only mean the performance of the mere acts of Tawassul, Ziyarat, and Du’a.

We pray that Allah (SwT) gives us the ability to truly be the lovers of Allah (SwT) in place of just claiming this station such that when we claim that 'We are the Shi’a of ‘Ali” we are in that form of a Shi’a that would be pleasing to Imam Ja’far b. Muhammad as-Sadiq (as) and to Imam ‘Ali b. Musa al-Riza (as)!

THE GENERAL LIFE-STYLE OF THE AHL AL-BAYT (AS)

The other members of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) are the perfect examples of the education and training of the Holy Prophet (SA). Their characters and life-style resemble the character of the Holy Prophet (SA).
Certainly, during 250 years, beginning from the 11th year of Hijrah (the year of Holy Prophet's [SA] demise) until the year 260 AH (when al-'Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi's [AS] Ghaybat al-Kubra, i.e., Great Occultation started), in their associations with people, the infallible guides, the Imams faced various situations showing their style of living in different forms. They, however, never gave up the main objective of the Holy Prophet's (SA) policy which consisted of safeguarding the Usul al-Din (the fundamental principles of Islam for believing in) and the Furu' al-Din (the secondary principles of Islam for action on) from undergoing changes and transformations, and the education of people, as far as possible.

Within 23 years since his call and invitation to Islam, the Holy Prophet (SA) passed three phases of his life. He secretly called the people to Islam in the first three years of his al-Bi'that al-Nabawiyyah. He, then overtly invited the people to Islam in the next ten years. However, he and his followers lived under the severe tortures and persecution of the society and enjoyed no freedom of action that could make a tangible reform in the society. The Holy Prophet (SA) spent the remaining ten years (after the Hijrah) in an atmosphere in which the revival of truth and reality was the main goal and in which the holy Islam gained striking achievements day by day, thus opening up a new gate of knowledge and perfection to the people at every moment.

It is certainly obvious that these three different environments demanded different expediencies and would display the character and life-style of the Holy Prophet (SA), who had no other objective but to revive the truth and reality, in various forms.

The different environments, in which the guiding Imams (AS) lived, were not unlike the pre-Hijrah period of the Holy Prophet's (SA) call. Sometimes, like the first three years of the prophetic mission, it was impossible even to highlight the truth and thus the Imams (AS) performed their duties with utmost care, as was the case at the time of the fourth Imam (AS) and the latter part of the time of the sixth Imam (AS) who had similar expediencies. Sometimes, like the ten years prior to Hijrah, when the Holy Prophet (SA) overtly called the people to Islam in Makkah and when he and his followers were unable to resist the pressure of the unbelievers, the Imams (AS) also proceeded to educate the people with the teachings of religion and the propagation of religious precepts. The influential men of the time, however, left no stone unturned in torturing and persecuting them and created new problems everyday.

Indeed, an environment resembling the Holy Prophet's (SA) post-Hijrah milieu to some extent was the one in which Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Mu'minin), 'Ali (AS), ruled as a caliph for five years, the one in which Hadrat Fatimah (AS) and al-Imam al-Hasan (AS) lived for a small period, and the one in which al-,Imam al-Husayn (AS) and his disciples lived for a short duration. In all these environments, the truth and reality were openly manifested, thus clearly reflecting the image of the general condition prevailing during the Holy Prophet's (SA) time.

In short, except in what has been mentioned, the infallible Imams could not oppose the tyrant and usurper rulers and commanders of the time basically and openly. Therefore, they were obliged to have taqiyyah (concealing one's true beliefs when life is in danger) and to give no excuse to the rulers of the time to bother them. Nevertheless, their enemies left no stone unturned to put off the lights of their guidance and nullify their efforts.

THE ROOT CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCES

OF THE IMAMS (AS) WITH CONTEMPORARY GOVERNMENTS

Various governments, which came into being in the Islamic society after the Holy Prophet (SA), under the name of Islam were all in serious disagreement with the Ahl al-Bayt (AS). This irreconcilable antagonism served as a root which never dried.

Although the Holy Prophet (SA) had mentioned about the virtues and excellent qualities of his Ahl al-Bayt (AS), the most important of which were the honour of knowing the teachings of the Holy Qur'an and distinguishing between halal (Islamically permissible) and haram (Islamically prohibited) matters and even though it was incumbent upon the Ummah to respect and honour the Ahl al-Bayt (AS), the Ummah, in spite of this recommendation and emphasis, did not discharge their obligations in this connection.

When the Holy Prophet (SA) openly invited people to Islam, on the very first day he mentioned about his relatives, embracing Islam and nominated 'Ali (AS) as his successor. He manifestly specified 'Ali's (AS) succession in Ghadir Khumm and elsewhere during the last days of his life. In spite of this fact, the people designated others as successors of the Holy Prophet (SA) after his death thus denying the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) of their indisputable rights. As a result, the governments of the time always considered the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) as dangerous rivals and were frightened of them. These governments exploited various possibilities to annihilate the Ahl al-Bayt (AS).

The governments of the time considered a deep discrepancy between the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) and the so-called Islamic governments indispensable. The Ahl al-Bayt (AS) believed that Islamic governments must observe, preserve, and enforce the divine precepts of Islam. As seen in their endeavours, however, the so-called Islamic governments that came to power after the Holy Prophet (SA) did not completely observe the enforcement of the precepts of Islam and the adherence to the sirah (life-style) of the Holy Prophet (SA).

On several occasions, the Almighty Allah enjoins the Holy Prophet (SA) and the Islamic Ummah not to make any changes or transformations in the divine precepts and warns them of showing the slightest tendency against any one of the Islamic precepts and orders. On the basis of these unchangeable and immutable orders, the Holy Prophet (SA) adopted a life-style through which he displayed no difference in the implementation of Islamic laws as far as time, place, and people were concerned.

Observing the divine precepts was incumbent upon everybody and even upon the Holy Prophet (SA) and was obligatory on the part of everyone. The Islamic laws were steadfast and effective in all circumstances.

As a result of this equality and justice, all types of preferences among the people disappeared. The Holy Prophet (SA), who by Allah's order was the ruler and commander and whose obedience was obligatory, did not have the slightest privilege over others in the internal and external affairs of his life. He did not avail himself of any luxury, maintained no protocol and formalities commensurate to his position as a ruler, and did not boast of his greatness and position. He showed no magnanimity or reverence. He could not be distinguished from the rest of the people through any outward appearance.

No group from the various strata of people sought superiority over others only by relying on their own discriminative preferences. Men and women, the rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, the urban and the rural, the slaves and the free men, and the black and the white all were equally ranked and no one was under obligation to perform actions beyond his religious duty. Everyone was immune against paying homage to the powerful people of the society or to be belittled by the influence and oppression of the oppressors.

With a little consideration, it will be clear (particularly after we have had long experiments after the death of the Holy Prophet [SA]) that the sole objective of the Holy Prophet's immaculate character was the just and equitable implementation of the divine orders of Islam among the people and the immunity and preservation of these laws against changes and transformations. But the "Islamic governments" did not conform their conduct with that of the Holy Prophet (SA) and entirely changed h is course of action. As a result:

(1) Shortly, class distinctions appeared in the "Islamic society" in the worst form. The people were divided into two groups, the strong and the weak. The life, property, and reputation of one group were subjected to destruction through the whims and desires of another group.

(2) The so-called "Islamic government" gradually changed Islamic laws. Sometimes, under the pretext of safeguarding an Islamic society and sometimes under the pretext of saving the government and its policy, these "Islamic governments" refrained from compliance with Islamic commandments and implementation of Islamic laws and provisions. This mode of working expanded day by day to such an extent that the so-called Islamic governments felt no responsibility towards the observance and implementation of Islamic laws. It is quite obvious to know as to what would be the status of Islamic laws and general provisions which have no proper executive power for implementation.

In Short, the "Islamic governments", during the lives of Ahl al-Bayt (AS), brought about changes in the precepts and laws of Islam as per the "expediency of the time". It was due to these changes that their conducts were contrary to that of the Holy Prophet (SA). But according to the Qur'anic directives, the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) considered the precepts of the conduct of the Holy Prophet (SA) indispensable.

Due to these differences and contradictions, the contemporary powerful governments did not refrain from crushing the Ahl al-Bayt (AS). They embarked on using every possible means to extinguish the light of their guidance.

Although the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) continuously faced many problems and encountered stubborn and sinister enemies, they continued their invitation of Islam to people and the work of Islamic tabligh (communication) in accordance with their divine duty, they did not leave any stone unturned for education of the righteous individuals.

To appreciate this matter, one must refer to history and notice the large population of Shi'ahs during the five-year Khilafah (caliphate) period of the Amir al-Mu'minin, 'Ali (AS). Certainly, this population had come up during the 25 years of , Ali's (AS) seclusion. Also, there Was similar gathering of a large number of Shi'ahs at the house of Al-Imam al-Baqir (AS). They were those who were quietly educated by Al-Imam al-Sajjad (AS). Furthermore, hundreds of thousands of Shi'ahs following the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) and faithful to Al-Imam al-Rida (AS) were the truth seekers whom Al-Imam Musa ibn Ja'far (AS) had guided even from the dark comers of the prisons.

Finally, because of the continuous training and education by the Ahl al-Bayt (AS), the Shi'ahs, who were an insignificant number at the time of the death of the Holy Prophet (SA), sharply increased to an amazing number during the last period of the infallible Imams (AS).

AN EXCEPTIONAL POINT IN THE POLICY

OF THE AHL AL-BAYT (AS)

As mentioned earlier, the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) of the Holy Prophet (SA) spent their lives under tyranny and accusation. They performed their assigned duties in the atmosphere of taqiyyah and under the most difficult conditions. Only four members among the Ahl al-Bayt (AS), for brief periods, could exceptionally have an opportunity to work independently without restraint and taqiyyah. We will briefly discuss the biographies of the members (other than the Prophet (SA) whose life-sketch has been already given) of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) here.

Islam:

The Message of the Prophets

The concept of submission to Allah has thus been described as the core of the religion and the gist of faith. Here, Islam' as a special title given to the eternal Divine Religion - the Message of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) - and as a general title for the calls of all the prophets, will be discussed.

Since all the prophets called for monotheism and invited mankind to worship Allah alone and liberate themselves from servitude to others, Islam is thus a general title for their calls.

In attempting to analyze this subject, one should refer to Qur'anic verses which deal with the concept of Islam'. Among these numerous verses which discuss religion, servitude and submission to the Lord of the worlds, preached by the prophets and messengers from Noah (A.S.) to Muhammad (S.A.W.), one should also note when and how the term Islam' has been used. In this way, the clear meaning of ‘Islam' and its relation with the calls of all the prophets becomes readily apparent.

The Qur'an uses this word repeatedly and in diverse forms to define true faith and complete submission to Allah's commands. Islam' has been used in the form of commands, benedictions and other expressions by the prophets and their faithful followers, announcing their submission or response to its call Allah the Exalted, proclaims through His servant Noah (A.S.):

"But if you are averse I have asked of you no wage; my wage is only with Allah, and lam commanded to be of those who are Muslims (submit to Him). Holy Qur’an (10:72)

Also, Allah proclaims through Abraham (A.S.):

"When his Lord said to him; be a Muslim, he said: I submit to the Lord of the worlds. And the same did Abraham enjoin upon his sons, and (so did) Jacob, (saying): 0 my sons! Surely Allah has chosen for you this (true) faith, therefore die not unless you are Muslims”Holy Qur’an (2:131-132)

"... the faith of your father Abraham (is yours). He named you Muslims before (in previous scriptures)....” Holy Qur’an (22:78)

Allah also relates, Joseph (A.S.) prayer:

"My Lord! You have given me (something) of the kingdom and taught me (something) of the interpretation of events: Originator, the heavens and the earth! You are my Guardian in this world and the hereafter; make me die a Muslim and join me with the righteous.”Holy Qur’an (12:101)

Allah the Exalted, relates Moses' proclamation in the Qur’an :"And Moses said: 0 my people! If you believe in Allah, then rely on Him (alone), if you have indeed become Muslims (those who submit to Him). ” Holy Qur’an (10:84)

Allah also says:“Surely We revealed the Torah, in which was guidance and light, by which the prophets who submitted themselves (to Allah) judged the Jews...” Holy Qur’an (5:44)

And,
"And when I inspired the disciples, (saying): Believe in Me and My Apostle (Jesus), they said: We believe and bear witness that we are Muslims (have submitted).” Holy Qur’an (5:111)

Allah also commands Muhammad (S.A.W.) like all other prophets to say :"I am commanded only to serve the Lord of this land (Mecca), Who has made it sacred, and His are all things: And l am commanded to be of those who are Muslims (submit to Him)”Holy Qur’an (27:91)

Thus, all these divine invitations meet along the line of submission - Islam - to the Lord of the worlds in its true context; that is, servitude and true faith in Allah, the Exalted. The explicit meaning becomes apparent in Abraham's (A.S.) words: "I submit to the Lord of the worlds; that is, he regards his submission as a religion for worship, as a trust he commits to his sons and his followers, as a slogan for the monotheists, and as a motto for the invitation to faith:“…. the faith of your father Abraham (is yours); He named you Muslims before (in previous scriptures)” Holy Qur’an (22:78)

Through these Qur'anic verses we understand that all the prophets followed this unified line of faith with a single aim: The implementation of servitude to Allah - mankind's submission to the Lord of the worlds liberating them from the worship of tyrants or their own inner desires.

As such, the Qur'an regards belief in the prophets as a major basis of a Muslim's ideology and as a historical and logical proof of the truthfulness of Muhammad's (S.A.W.) message:"Say (0 Muslims): We believe in Allah and (in) that which has been revealed to us, and (in) that which was revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and (in) that which was given to Moses and Jesus, and (in) that which was given to the prophets from their Lord, we make no distinction between any of them, and to Him we submit (become Muslims).”Holy Qur’an (2:136)

"Say: I am not the first of the apostles, nor do I know what will be done with me or with you: I do not follow anything but that which is revealed to me, and I am (nothing) but a plain warner.”Holy Qur’an (46:9)

All the prophets, as is understood from the above verses, offered to mankind the same religion and the same belief which Allah considered, to be the base and the starting point for the reformation of man. It would deliver him from the dark labyrinth of ignorance which has resulted from the ages of legends and myths fabricated by primitive peoples. Man has suffered from this ignorance as he has suffered from the oppression of tyrants, and from poverty, injustice and corruption. He will continue to suffer unless he turns to the path of the prophets who all shared the same call. This call aimed at the salvation of humanity - generation after generation, nation after nation - from its sufferings and tragedies.

Allah the Exalted, willed that all His messengers should pour their offerings into the same stream, that their flames should unite into a single illumination. This was the call of Islam, the message of Muhammad (S.A.W.), as the eternal religion, the final message, and the theme dominating and encompassing all other missions of the apostles

"And We have revealed to you the Book (Qur'an) with the truth confirming whatever of the Book (s) was before it and a guardian over it, so judge between them by what Allah has revealed, and do not follow their low desires (to turn away) from the truth which has come to you; for everyone of you We have appointed a divine law and a (traced out) way...”Holy Qur’an (5:48)

“ He it is Who sent His Apostle with the guidance and the true religion; that He may make it overcome (other) religions, all of them, however much the polytheists may be averse.” Holy Qur’an (61:9)

Islam overcame all other religions as it is characterized by equality, rationality, universality and eternity, enabling it to expand over vast periods of man's history, encompassing all aspects of human growth and development. Religion is thus, like a great river which has flowed through all eras of man. This river is represented by Islam - the great religion that was preached by the prophets in accordance with the needs and potentials of their nations - which has flowed through all generations, nations and prophets. Men have taken from this river as much as they needed, yet it remained flowing with life; fertility and growth for all humanity through all ages.

For this reason Allah sent the prophets throughout human history to guide man to the shores of this great spiritual river which endows him with prosperity and life.

"0 you who believe! answer (the call of) Allah, and the Apostle when he calls you to that which gives you life...”Holy Qur’an (8:24)

Therefore, the calls of the prophets were alike as all of them advocated Islam, which is the religion of mankind for all time.

As for differences among the messages of the prophets, these were due to the particular requirements of societies during the various periods of prophecy, the societies' level of comprehension and extent of tolerance.

When man thus attained full maturity, he became ready to accept this religion-Islam-to carry its message, and to follow its guidance. This has been explained and confirmed by the Qur'an.

"Surely the religion with (acceptable to) Allah is Islam (submission to His will) and those to whom (formerly) the Book had been given did not oppose (about Islam) but after knowledge (of Islam's truth) had come to them, out of envy among themselves; and whoever disbelieves in the revelation of Allah then surely Allah is swift at reckoning. ”Holy Qur’an (3:19)

"And whoever follows a religion other than Islam, it will not be accepted from him, and he will be one of the losers in the hereafter.Holy Qur’an (3:85)

This was the religion from which the prophets derived their messages, but it was not their duty to insure the total acceptance of their nations. They had been given the task of informing their nations according to their nation's immediate needs and potentials, leading them to the way of righteousness and peace. This is what the Qur'an says about religion and messages, and about the unity of source and aim, stressing that religion is one- Islam - and the messages of all the prophets were derived from it:

"He has made plain to you of the religion which He enjoined upon Noah, and that which We have revealed to you (Muhammad), and that which We enjoined upon Abraham and Moses and Jesus, (saying): Establish the religion, and be not divided therein; dreadful for the unbelievers is that which you call them to; Allah chooses for Himself whom He pleases, and guides to Himself him who turns (to Him) frequently. ” Holy Qur’an (42:13)

Consequently it is incorrect to describe the calls of the prophets as different religions, because these emanations originated from a single source, inviting towards the same religion, though the messages slightly varied, according to the times, the geographical location, the language and levels of comprehension of the peoples.

"And We did not send any apostle but with the language of his people, so that he might explain to them/” Holy Qur’an (14:4)

In this way the Qur'an proves the oneness of the line and direction followed by the prophets, and affirms that all of them had been commanded to establish the true religion-Islam.

Going through the Qur'anic verses concerning the concepts of religion and its messages, we realize that Islam is the frame encircling all the divine revelations. Islam in fact is the final formulation of the complete divine message that draws a perfect picture of man and life on earth. It is the very base from which the divine calls and messages were made, such as those of Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others (peace be upon them):

"And surely it is in the original of the Book with Us, truly elevated, full of wisdom .” Holy Qur’an (43:4)
Thus, what was revealed to the Seal of the Prophets, Muhammad (S.A.W.) was the most advanced programme and the most perfect law of the divine religion, Islam ,which was to be conveyed to all humanity.

Since Muhammad (S.A.W.) is the last prophet and the divine message has been revealed in all its entirety and perfectness, therefore all the former messages are to be regarded as null and void, after the revelation of the holy Qur'an. Because the messages sent through the previous prophets were of a temporary nature and limited in time- span, and were the prelude fo1 the final and great call of Islam.
The divine message revealed to Muhammad (S.A.W.) embraces all future eras and generations, and is the final stage of mankind's historical march. Therefore it is incumbent upon mankind to mould life according to the final call and the message of Islam, revealed through the Seal of the Prophets.

Introduction to Shia Islam

By: Sayyid Muhammad Rizvi

A. Introduction

The name "Shï'a" or "Shi'ite" entered the Western media's common vocabulary during the Islamic Revolution of Iran, and it is being frequently heard now in context of the war in Iraq when reporters or commentators say that sixty to sixty-five percent of the Iraqis are "Shi'ite" or "Shï'a Muslims".

If you travel across the Middle East and Asia, you will soon realize that besides the similarity and uniformity found among the Muslims on basic issues, there is also a great diversity in the world of Islam. Not only in the composition of its membership but also in thought and practice: there are different theological sects and a variety of spiritual brotherhoods.

However, the most the important division in Islamic theology has placed the Muslims into two main schools of thought: the Sunni and the Shï'a. The Muslims who believe that 'Alï was the immediate

successor and caliph of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) are known as "Shï'a". The name "Shï'a" is a short form of the Arabic phrase: "Shï'atu 'Alï - a follower of 'Alï." 'Alï, son of Abu Tمlib, was the
cousin and the son-in-law of the Prophet of Islam.[1]

Out of almost a two billion Muslims in the world, about fifteen percent are Shï'a Muslims.

It is important to note that in most Muslim communities and for most part of the their history, the Shï'as have lived in peace and harmony with the Sunni Muslims. Polemics in religious writings on both sides has been part of our history, but that was limited to the learned and the educated elite, and it never degenerated into physical violence against one another.

Unfortunately, in the last twenty years, the Shï'a Muslims have been persecuted on religious and political grounds in certain Muslim countries, especially in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iraq. In Pakistan, by the Sipah-e Sahaba group; in Afghanistan, by the former Taleban government; and in Iraq, by Saddam's former regime.

B. Who is a Muslim?

The Sunnis and the Shï'as both are Muslims, so let us first define a "Muslim". A Muslim is one who believes in the following three principles of Islam:

1.. Monotheism (Tawheed).

This is the belief that there is only One God who is the origin and creator of the universe. This is the foundation stone of Islam and is reflected in the famous sentence that says that, "I bear
witness that there is no god but Allâh".

2.. Prophethood (Nubuwwa).

This is the belief that God sent thousands of prophets and messengers to guide the human society. Some of the most important prophets of God in whom a Muslim must believe are: Adam, Noah,

Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad (peace be upon them all).

A Muslim must also believe that Prophet Muhammad was the last prophet and final messenger of God. No prophet or messenger is to come after him. This is reflected in the famous saying: "I bear
witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God".

3.. Resurrection and Life Hereafter (Qiyâmat).

This is a belief that at the end of time, all human beings will be resurrected by God and will be held accountable for their worldly life. The life in hereafter will be an eternal life. However, whether it will be blissful or full of sorrow depends on how we spend our present life.

All Muslims agree that the above three principles are the minimum requirement for joining into the fold of Islam. Anyone who does not believe in all three of the above principles cannot be called a
Muslim.

All the Muslims -the Sunnis as well as the Shï'as- also agree on the following important issues:

a.. The Qur'an is the Word of God revealed upon Prophet Muhammad, and that it is unaltered, and the main source of Islamic views. For example, one of the earliest Shï'a scholar, Shaykh as-Sadûq (d. 381/991), said: "Our belief is that the Quran, which Allمh revealed to His Prophet Muhammad (s) is the one between the two covers. And it is that which is in the hands of the people, & is not greater in extent than that. And he who asserts that we say that it is greater in extent than this (the present text) is a liar." Not only this most famous of the early Shï'a scholar believes in the integrity of the Quran, even the most famous contemporary scholar of the Shï'a world, the Grand Ayatullah Sayyid Abul Qasim al-Khu'ï has written, al-Bayan in which he convincingly proves the integrity of the Quran (You may see its English translation published by the Oxford University Press in 1998 under the title "The Prolegomena of the Quran".)

a.. The Sunna (sayings and deeds) of the Prophet of Islam is, after the Qur'ân, the main source of guidance for the Muslims.

a.. The Ka'ba in Mecca is the symbolic House of God, and that Muslims face its direction whenever they stand for their daily prayers.

a.. The following famous tenets of Islam are accepted by both Muslims, the Sunni as well as the Shï'a:

* the five daily prayers (salât),

* the fasting during the month of Ramadhân (sawm),

* paying of religious charity and monetary dues (like zakât),

* the performing of pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

C. Who is a Shia Muslim?

A Shï'a Muslim believes in all the issues mentioned above.

What makes a Shï'ï different from a Sunnï are two main concepts:

leadership and justice.

(1) Leadership (imâmat):

Shï'ï school of thought believes that Islam is a complete way of life, and therefore it is inconceivable that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) would have ignored the issue of leadership after
his death.

Shï'as are of the opinion that the Prophet not only gave importance to the issue of leadership and succession but also clearly appointed 'Ali bin Abi Tâlib as his successor and caliph, and also mentioned that the leadership of Islam will continue in his family. We believe that whatever the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) did was done in accordance with the will of God.

The Sunni Muslims are of the opinion that Prophet Muhammad set no guidelines for the institution of leadership after his death, and that it was upon the Muslims themselves to come up with a system of leadership. And, therefore, you see a variety of methods were used for appointment of leaders and caliphs:

1.. through a limited selection by a small group of people in Saqïfa as happened in the case of the first caliph;

2.. through a will written by the first caliph appointing the second;

3.. through a committee of six people hand-picked by the second caliph as happened in case of the third caliph;

4.. through people's power when the masses insisted on 'Ali to become their ruler;

5.. through military superiority as witnessed in case of Mu'awiya;

and also

6.. through hereditary in case of the Umayyids and the 'Abbasids.

Shï'ism bases its arguments on the divine precedence in which God never left the issue of leadership in the hands of the people;

He appointed the prophets and their successors. Professor Wilfred Madelung of the Oxford University makes an interesting observation in his book, The Succession to Muhammad, published in 1997. He writes, "The Qur'مn advises the faithful to settle some matters by consultation, but not the succession to prophets. That, according to the Quran, is settled by divine election, and God usually chooses their successors, whether they become prophets or not, from their own kin." (p. 17)

The Prophet of Islam, from the very first day of his mission started introducing 'Ali bin Abi Tâlib as his successor. He clarified that this was done by the will of God.

Names of the Shia Imams (successors of the Prophet) and their era of leadership:

1. 'Ali bin Abi Talib 632-661

2. Hasan bin 'Ali 661-669

3. Husayn bin 'Ali 669-680

4. 'Ali Zayn al-'Abidin 680-712

5. Muhammad al-Baqir 712-735

6. Ja'far as-Sadiq 735-765

7. Musa al-Kazim 765-799

8. 'Ali ar-Riza 799-818

9. Muhammad bin 'Ali 818-835

10. 'Ali an-Naqi 835-868

11. Hasan al-'Askari 868-873

12. Muhammad al-Mahdi 873-Living in Occultation.

The Twelfth Shia Imam (or successor of the Prophet) is believed to have gone into occultation (that is, he is alive but is not known to anyone). This occultation will last till the reappearance of the Twelfth Imam as the Saviour who will establish the Kingdom of God on earth. The Shias believe that the Mahdi will be assisted in his mission by Jesus.

Appointment of 'Ali by the Prophet:

From the very first day of his mission, Prophet Muhammad started introducing 'Ali bin Abi Tâlib as his successor.

Islam began when the Prophet Muhammad became forty years old.

Initially, the mission was kept a secret. Then three years after the advent of Islam, the Prophet was ordered to commence the open declaration of his message. This was the occasion when Almighty
Allمh revealed the verse "And warn thy nearest relations." (26:214)

When this verse was revealed, the Prophet organized a feast that is known in history as "Summoning the Family - Da'wat dhu 'l-'Ashïra". The Prophet invited around forty men from the Banu Hمshim and asked 'Ali bin Abi Tمlib to make arrangements for the dinner. After having served his guests with food and drinks, when the Prophet wanted to speak to them about Islam, Abu Lahab forestalled him and said, "Your host has long since bewitched you."

All the guests dispersed before the Prophet could present his message to them.

The Prophet then invited them the next day. After the feast, he spoke to them, saying:

"O Sons of 'Abdu 'l-Muttalib! By Allمh, I do not know of any person among the Arabs who has come to his people with better than what I have brought to you. I have brought to you the good of this world and the next, and I have been commanded by the Lord to call you unto Him. Therefore, who amongst you will support me in this matter so that he may be my brother (akhhi), my successor (wasiyy) and my caliph (khalifat) among you?"

This was the first time that the Prophet openly and publicly called the relations to accept him as the Messenger and Prophet of Allمh; he also uses the words - my brother, my successor, my caliph" for the person who will aid him in this mission. No one answered him; they all held back except the youngest of them - 'Ali bin Abi Talib. He stood up and said, "I will be your helper, O Prophet of God."

The Prophet put his hand on the back of 'Ali's neck and said:

Verily this is my brother, my successor, and my caliph amongst you; therefore, listen to him and obey."[3]

This was a very explicit statement because the audience understood the appointment of 'Ali very clearly. Some of them, including Abu Lahab, even joked with Abu Talib saying that your nephew, Muhammad, has ordered you to listen to your son and obey him! At the least, this shows that the appointment of 'Ali bin Abi Taleb was clear and explicit, not just implied.

After that, the Prophet at various places emphasized the issue of loving his Ahlul Bayt, seeking guidance from them, and drew the attention of the people to the special status that they had in the
eyes of God and His Messenger. (See 42:23)

Then the Formal Declaration:

Finally, just two months before his death, the Prophet clearly appointed 'Ali in Ghadir Khumm as the leader (religious as well as political) of the Muslims. He said, "Whomsoever's Master I am, this 'Ali is his Master." He also said, "I am leaving two precious things behind, as long as you hold on to them both you will never go astray: the Book of Allمh and my progeny."[4]

Question: Why have many Western scholars ignored the event of Ghadir Khumm? Since Western scholars mostly relied on anti-Shi'a works, they naturally ignored the event of Ghadir Khumm. L. Veccia Vaglieri, one of the contributors to the second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (1953), writes:

"Most of those sources which form the basis of our knowledge of the life of Prophet (Ibn Hisham, al-Tabari, Ibn Sa'd, etc.) pass in silence over Muhammad's stop at Ghadir Khumm, or, if they mention
it, say nothing of his discourse (the writers evidently feared to attract the hostility of the Sunnis, who were in power, by providing material for the polemic of the Shï'is who used these words to support their thesis of 'Ali's right to the caliphate).

Consequently, the western biographers of Muhammad, whose work is based on these sources, equally make no reference to what happened at Ghadir Khumm."[5]

Then she writes:

"It is, however, certain that Muhammad did speak in this place and utter the famous sentence, for the account of this event has been preserved, either in a concise form or in detail, not only by al-Ya'kubi, whose sympathy for the 'Alid cause is well known, but also in the collection of traditions which are considered canonical, especially in the Musnad of Ibn Hanbal; and the hadiths are so numerous and so well attested by the different isnads that it does not seem possible to reject them."[6]

Vaglieri continues, "Several of these hadiths are cited in the bibliography, but it does not include the hadith which, although reporting the sentence, omit to name Ghadir Khumm, or those which state that the sentence was pronounced at al-Hudaybiya. The complete documentation will be facilitated when the Concordance of Wensinck have been completely published. In order to have an idea of how numerous these hadiths are, it is enough to glance at the pages in which Ibn Kathir has collected a great number of them with their isnads."

(2) Justice (`adl):

The Shï'a school of Islamic thought values justice so highly that the belief in justice has become its hallmark in theological books.

The Shï'as believe that justice must prevail and exist at all stages of existence. They believe that God is just in His dealing with mankind; that God does not compel anyone to believe or to disbelieve in Him; that God does not compel human beings to do good or evil - it is entirely left upon them to make the right choice in light of the guidance provided by the prophets and messengers.

This belief in importance of justice permeates down to human level: the Shï'as believe that the Prophet and the Imams who succeeded him must also upheld highest standard of justice; that even the religious leaders and prayer-leaders must be upright in their character.

Based on this emphasis of the concept of justice, Shï'a Muslims are not permitted to co-operate or work with an unjust and tyrant ruler, and they are also expected to strive for a just social order in human society.
This is the underlying basis of the various Shï'ï movements in history in which they have risen against the rulers and governments of their own times.

C. Summary of Shia Beliefs

In conclusion, a Muslim is one who believes in the following three principles

a.. Monotheism - Tawheed.

a.. Prophethood - Nubuwwa.

a.. Life Hereafter - Qiyâmat.

A Shi'a Muslim is the one who believes in the following five principles

a.. Monotheism - Tawheed.

a.. Prophethood - Nubuwwa.

a.. Life Hereafter - Qiyâmat.

a.. Justice - `Adl.

a.. Leadership - Imâmat.

Notes:

[1] Prophet Abraham has been described in the Quran by both names: "muslim - one who submits to God" (3:67) as well as "Shï'a -follower (of Prophet Noah)" (37:79-83)

[2] See Moojan Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam (London:

Yale University Press, 1985) p. 282 that is somewhat outdated now.

Also see the figures given by Yann Richard, Shi'ite Islam, tr.

Antonia Nevill (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995) p. 2-5. The figures in these two books have been modified with the information given in the latest versions of various encyclopedias.

[3] Most Muslim historians and commentators of the Qur'مn have quoted this event. See the following Sunni sources: at-Tabari, at-Tarikh, vol. 1 (Leiden, 1980 offset of the 1789 edition) p. 171-173; Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil, vol. 5 (Beirut, 1965) p. 62-63; Abu 'l-Fida', al-Mukhtasar fi Tarikhi 'l-Bashar, vol. 1 (Beirut, n.d.) p. 116-117; al-Khazin, at-Tafsir, vol. 4 (Cairo, 1955) p. 127; al-Baghawi, at-Tafsir (Malimu 't-Tanzil), vol. 6 (Riyadh: Dar Tayyiba, 1993) p. 131; al-Bayhaqi, Dalail 'n-Nubuwwa, vol. 1 (Cairo, 1969) p. 428-430; as-Suyuti, ad-Durru 'l-Manthûr, vol. 5

(Beirut, n.d.) p. 97; and Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanzu 'l-'Ummal, vol. 15 (Hyderabad, 1968) pp. 100, 113, 115. For further references, see 'Abdu 'l-Husayn al-Amini, al-Ghadeer, vol. 2 (Beirut, 1967) pp.278-289.

In English see, Rizvi, S. Saeed Akhtar, Imamate: the Vicegerency of the Prophet (Tehran: WOFIS, 1985) pp. 57-60. For an elaborate discussion on the isnad and meaning of the Prophet's had in this
event, and also the variations in the early Sunni and Shi'a sources, see Dr. Sayyid Talib Husayn ar-Rifai, Yawmu 'd-Dar (Beirut: Dar al-Azw, 1986)

[4] For further discussion on the event of Ghadيr Khumm, see the chapter "Ghadir Khumm & the Orientalists" of my Shi'ism: Imamate & Wilayat.. For authenticity of this version of the hadith (that is, "Book of Allah and my progeny" as opposed to "Book of Allah and my sunnah"), see the Sunni author, Hasan bin 'Ali as-Saqqaf, "The Book of Allah and What Else?" The Right Path, vol. 6
3 & 4 Oct-Dec 1997) p. 44-49.
[5] EI2, p. 993 under "Ghadir Khumm".
[6] EI2, p. 993 under "Ghadir Khumm"

How to become a True Shia?

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Shaykh Nasir Makarim Shirazi

The text of this tradition itself is a lesson for us and it shows us that in Islam, physically helping others is something very important. This is something which we too must give importance to and encourage other people towards. This is also one of the things which removes the adversities in people's lives and if done while on the spiritual path, would permit one to reach Allah (SwT).

However in this tradition, the Imam wishes to spiritually awaken his students and point them to an even more important issue. It is for this reason that he told his companion that they should not make their charity null and void through laying an obligation upon and harassing those who whom they have helped.

The companion told the Imam that he neither lays an obligation nor does he harass the person whom he helps to which the Imam replied, “Harassing the person (whom you have helped) does not only relate to the person whom you have assisted (materially). Rather you have actually harassed the Angels of Allah (SwT) and us (the Ahlu'l Bayt) as well.”

This companion asked, “How is it that I have harassed you (the Ahlu'l Bayt) and the Angels of Allah (SwT) where as I am one of your sincere Shi’a (followers)?”

The Imam replied, “This claim of yours that you are one of our sincere Shi’a has made all of your actions void since the true, sincere Shi’a are only the true believer from amongst the people of Pharaoh (as mentioned in the Qur’an), the true believer mentioned in Surat Yasin, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and ‘Ammar. The true believer from amongst the people of Pharaoh had true faith in Musa (as) however was forced to hide it [and this is one of the proofs for the permissibility of Taqiyyah.

In this verse of the Qur’an, the man spoke to the oppressors and said to them, “Why are you dealing with Musa in such a harsh manner? Maybe he is speaking the truth. If he is lying, then his lies are on his own record of deeds and if he is speaking the truth, then why do you need to deal with him such? According to the principal of deflecting danger (from yourselves), deal with him in the way of 'probability' (that he may be truthful in his words).”

Since these people of Fir’awn did not pay any attention to these words from this man, he said, (Surely I entrust all of our affairs to Allah.)“ At this point, these oppressors drew up plans to kill this believer, however Allah (SwT) protected him - (So then Allah protected him from their evil plots…)]

At this point, the Imam (as) said, “This is our Shi’a (true follower) who was alone and isolated amongst the enemies however stood firm as a mountain.

The other true believer was the one mentioned in Surat Yasin: (And came a man to them from the furthest part of the city, running to them…) [The history of revelation of this verse is in relation to two individuals form amongst the Messengers of Allah (SwT) whose names were Shim’awn and Yuhna who lived in the city of Antakiyah (the country previously known as Shamat which is present day Turkey) and who began their propagation work there.

The Surah continues on and says, (When We sent to them two (Messengers)) and these Messengers were ordered to guide the people towards Allah (SwT) and to command them to refrain from idol worship, however they were not triumphant in this endeavour of theirs (since the people did not listen to them). The verse continues and says, (So then We strengthened them with a third (Messenger).)[87]

Even with this third person sent, they still were not able to dissuade their people from the worship of the idols. At this point, we read that, (And came a man to them from the furthest part of the city, running to them…)[88] Thus, it was at this point that Allah (SwT) send habib Najjar, however he was stoned to death and became a martyr in the way of Allah (SwT).]

In continuation of the tradition, the Imam said, “Do you compare yourself to people like this?”

Obviously the goal of the Imam in saying this was to train the person and it is for this reason that when this companion heard these words, he said, “I ask forgiveness (for the claims I have made).” and then said to the Imam, “Please tell me, now what should I do?”

The Imam replied to him, “Say: I am from amongst your friends and lovers and of those who has hatred for your enemies and…”

The Imam then said, “Now, your reward (for your previous acts) has returned back to you and you have been compensated.” [It should be noted that amongst the traditions, it is something very rare to see a tradition in which one's Divinely granted rewards are given back after they have been considered null and void.]

This tradition shows us that to claim to be a follower (a Shi’a) is an easy thing and to truly be a Shi’a is something very difficult.

We pray that we are able to spiritually build ourselves and that we are also able to guide others to this path.[89]!

Notes:
[87] Surat Yasin (36), verse 14
[88] Ibid., verse 20
[89] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 65, pg. 159

The Qualities of the Shia

Sifat ush-Shia

By: Shaikh Saduq

In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate the Merciful

From Him, We Seek Help

All Praise is Due to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds.

All Blessings Be upon Mohammed and His Immaculate Household

Abu Ja’far Mohammed bin Ali bin al-Hussein bin Musa bin Babawayh (the compiler of this book) says:

(1) The Shia are the people of piety and diligence

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Mohammed bin Yahya al-Attar al-Kufi from Musa bin Imran an-Nakh’i from his uncle al-Hussein bin Yazid an-Nawfali from Ali bin Salem from his father from Abu Bassir that Imam as-Sadiq (a) said:

Our Shia are the people of piety and diligence, loyalty and honesty, and asceticism and worship. They perform fifty-one rak’as in a single day and night. They pass their nights with worship and their days with fasting. They defray the zakat from their wealth, perform the hajj, and refrain from committing any forbidden thing.

(2) The Shia are those who submit to the imams

My father, Allah have mercy upon him, related to us from Ali bin Ibrahim from his father from Ali bin Mabad from al-Hussein bin Khalid that Abu al-Hasan ar-Ridha (a) said:

Our (true) Shia are those who submit to our orders, carry out our directives, and dissent from our enemies. He who does not enjoy such characteristics is not one of us.

(3) The Shia and taqiyah

Ja’far bin Mohammed bin Masrour narrated to us from al-Hussein bin Mohammed bin Aamir from his uncle Abdullah bin Aamir from Mohammed bin Abi Umair from Eban bin Othman that Ja’far bin Mohammed as-Sadiq (a) said:

The religion of those who deny taqiyah is null and the faith of those who lack piety is null, too.

(4) The false Shiite

Mohammed bin Ali Majilwayh, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from his uncle Mohammed bin Abi al-Qasim from Mohammed bin Ali al-Kufi from Mohammed bin Sinan from al-Mufaddhal bin Omar that Imam as-Sadiq (a) said:

He who claims being one of our Shia while he is clinging to the handle of somebody else is surely telling a lie.

(5) The Shia were created from the same clay of the Imams

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Abdullah bin Ja’far from Ahmed bin Mohammed from Ibn Abi Nejran that he heard Abu al-Hasan (Imam ar-Ridha) saying:

He who antagonizes our Shia is antagonizing us and whoever follows them is following us, because they are part of us. They were created from the same clay from which we were created. He who loves them is one of us, and whoever hates them is not with us. Our Shia see through the light of Allah, move about in the mercy of Allah, and will win the dignity of Allah. We feel the same pains that any of our Shia feels during ailment, we become grieved whenever any of our Shia becomes grieved, and we feel happy whenever any of our Shia feels happy. No one of our Shia can be out of our auspices, whether he was in the east or the west of the earth. The debt that is left by any of our Shia is in our responsibility while the estate is his heirs’. Our Shia are those who offer the prayers, defray the zakat, perform the hajj to the Holy House of Allah, fast during the month of Ramadan, declare their loyalty to the Prophet’s household, and declare their disavowal of the enemies of the Prophet’s household. Those are the people of faith, God-fearing, piety, and devoutness. He whoever rejects them is rejecting Allah, because they are the true servants and the genuine disciples of Allah. By Allah I swear, each individual of them will be granted (on the Day of Resurrection) the right to intercede for people as many as the individuals of the tribes of Rabeea and Madhar, out of Allah’s honor to them.

(6) The reward of la ilaha illa (a)llah

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ya’qoub bin Yazid from Mohammed bin Abi Umair from Mohammed bin Hamran that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
He whoever says ‘La ilaha illa (A)llah’ –there is no god but Allah- sincerely will be in Paradise. Sincerity, here, means that this saying should prevent him from violating the things that Allah forbids.

(7) The reward of la ilaha illa (a)llah

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ahmed bin Mohammed, al-Hasan bin Ali al-Kufi, and al-Hussein bin Saif from Sulaiman bin Amr from Muhajir Abu al-Hasan from Zaid bin Arqam that the Prophet (s) said:

He who says ‘La ilaha illa (A)llah’ –there is no god but Allah- sincerely will be in Paradise. Sincerity, here, means that this saying should prevent him from violating the things that Allah forbids.

(8) The Shia are the God-fearing

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Himyari from Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Easa from al-Hasan bin Mahboub from Ali bin Riaab from Abu Ubaida al-Hetthaa that Abu Abdullah (a) related that when the Prophet (s) conquered Mecca, he stood in Safa and said:

O sons of Hashim and sons of Abdul-Muttalib, I am the messenger of Allah to all of you. I feel pity for you. Do not depend on the fact that Mohammed is from you. By Allah I swear, my followers, whether they are from your clan or any other clan, are only the God-fearing.

I will not admit you on the Day of Resurrection if you come to me burdened with the worldly disadvantages while others come with the advantages of the world to come. I am excused regarding my mission to you and the commandments of Allah for you. I have my own deeds and you will have your own deeds.

(9) The company of the evils and the company of the good

Ahmed Bin Mohammed bin Yahya al-Attar, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ibrahim bin Hashim from Ibn Abi Nejran from Aassim bin Hamid from Mohammed bin Qays that Abu Ja’far Mohammed bin Ali al-Baqir (a) related on the authority of his fathers that Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) said:

To sit with the evils causes mistrust in the good. To sit with the good attaches the evils to the good. The sinful ones’ sitting with the good ones attaches the sinful ones to the good ones. If you cannot discern the belief of somebody, you should investigate his associates. If they are following the right creed, he will inevitably be on the right creed. If they are not, he then has no share in the religion of Allah.

The Prophet (s) used to say:
He who believes in Allah and the Final Day should not fraternize with any disbeliever or associate with any sinful. He whoever fraternizes with a disbeliever or associates with a sinful one is certainly regarded as disbeliever and sinful.

(10) He who honors a dissident is not Shiite

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin al-Waleed related to us from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Mohammed bin Easa bin Ubaid from Ibn Faddhal that Imam ar-Ridha (a) said:
As for anyone who builds relations with somebody who disregards us, disregards somebody who builds good relations with us, praises somebody who reviles at us, or honors somebody who dissents from us, he is surely not one us and we are surely not from him. 

(11) The loyalty to the enemies of Allah

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil narrated to us from Ali bin al-Hussein as-Sa’dabadi from Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Khalid from Ibn Faddhal that Imam ar-Ridha (a) said:
He who follows the enemies of Allah will certainly antagonize the disciples of Allah, and whoever antagonizes the disciples of Allah will antagonize Allah Who will incumbently put him in the fire of Hell.

(12) The Shia of Ali abstain from the food appetite and work for their Creator

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Ahmed bin Abdullah… that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
By Allah I swear, the Shia of Ali are only those who abstain from the food and the sexual appetites, work sincerely for the Creator, hope for gaining His reward, and fear from His punishment.

(13) Moralities of the Shia

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Ali bin as-Salt that Mohammed bin Ajlan said:

I was with Abu Abdullah (a) when a man attended and greeted. The Imam asked him about the manners of his friends. The man praised, admired, and honored.
The Imam asked: How about the rich men’s visiting the poor?
He answered: It is few.

The Imam (a) asked: How about the rich men’s regarding and helping the poor?
He said: You are referring to moralities that we do not enjoy.
The Imam (a) said: How do they claim being Shia, then?

(14) The affection for the Prophet’s household

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Mohammed bin Yahya from Ahmed bin Mohammed al-Khezzaz that Imam ar-Ridha (a) said:
Some of those who claim the affection for us –the Prophet’s household- are more dangerous for our Shia than the ordeal of the Dajjal.

I asked: How do such people become dangerous?
The Imam (a) answered: They support our enemies and antagonize our followers. When this occurs, the right will be confused with the wrong and the whole matter will be perplexed. Then, there will be no distinction between the believers and the hypocrites.

(15) The friend of Allah’s enemy is Allah’s enemy

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed narrated to us from Ahmed bin Idris from Ja’far bin Mohammed Bin Malik al-Fazari from Mohammed bin al-Hussein bin Zaid from Mohammed bin Sinan from al-Alaa bin al-Fudhayl that Imam as-Sadiq (a) said:
He who loves a disbeliever will hate Allah and whoever hates a disbeliever loves Allah.
He (a) then added:
The friend of Allah’s enemy is Allah’s enemy.

(16) The company of the suspicious

Ja’far bin Mohammed bin Masrour, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from a number of our acquaintances that Ja’far bin Mohammed (a) said:
He who sits to the suspicious people is suspicious.

(17) The Nasibi is he who antagonizes the Shia

Mohammed bin Ali Majilwayh narrated to us from his uncle Mohammed bin Abi al-Qasim from Mohammed bin Ali al-Kufi from Ibn Faddhal from al-Mu’alla bin Khunais that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:
The Nasibi is not he who declares antagonism against us; the Prophet’s household. You cannot meet any person who declares that he hates Mohammed and his family openly. The Nasibi is he who provokes hostility against you while he knows that you support us and disavow our enemies.
He (a) also said:
He who gratifies one of our enemies is killing one of our disciples.

(18) The Shia of Ali are atrophied-stomached and dry-lipped

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah and Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Himyari from Ahmed bin Mohammed bin al-Hasan… that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The Shia of Ali are atrophied-stomached, dry-lipped, and people of compassion, knowledge, and clemency. Their distinctive feature is reverence. Help the beliefs that you embrace by means of piety and diligence.

(19) The Shia of Ali are the pale and the thin

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Ahmed bin Mohammed al-Barqi from Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Shamoun from Abdullah bin Amr bin al-Ash’ath from Abdullah bin Hemmad al-Ansari from Abdullah bin Sinan from Amr bin Abi al-Miqdam from his father that Abu Ja’far (a) said:

O Abu al-Miqdam, the Shia of Ali (a) are only the pale, the thin, and the feeble. Their lips are faded because of worship and their stomachs are atrophied. Their colors are pale and they are white-faced. When night comes upon them, they betake the ground as their bed and the direction of their foreheads. Their eyes are teary, their teardrops are heavy, and their prayers are very much. They recite the Book of Allah. When people are happy, they are grieved.

(20) The marks of the Shia

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Ali bin as-Salt from Ahmed bin Mohammed from as-Sindi bin Mohammed that Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) turned his face to the group who were following him and asked them about their beliefs. “We are your Shia, Amir ul-Mu'minin,” they answered. He said, “But I cannot see the marks of the Shia on your faces.” “What are the marks of the Shia?” asked they. He (a) spoke:
The Shia are pale-faced because of staying up at nights, atrophied-stomached because of fasting, and dry-lipped because of prayers to Allah. The dust of the submissive covers them.

(21) The Shia of Ja’far abstain from the food appetite and work diligently

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Ali bin al-Hussein as-Sa’dabadi from al-Barqi from his father from al-Mufaddhal that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The Shia of Ja’far are only those who abstain from the food and the sexual appetites, act diligently, work for the Creator, hope for gaining His reward, and fear from His punishment. If you see them, know that they are the Shia of Ja’far.

(22) The false embracement of Shiism

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Ali bin al-Hussein as-Sa’dabadi… from Jabir al-Ju’fi that Abu Ja’far (a) said:
O Jabir, do you think that it is sufficient for those who claim being Shia to say that they cherish us; the Prophet’s household?

By Allah I swear, our Shia are only those who fear and obey Allah. Their signs are modesty, submission, fulfillment of the trusts, very much reference to Allah, fasting, offering prayers, piety to (their) parents, aiding the neighbors especially the poor, the destitute, the indebted, and the orphans, truth, reciting the Quran, and avoiding mentioning people except for praising. In addition, they are the most trustful of the people of their tribes.

Jabir said: O son of Allah’s Messenger, we do not know anyone who bears such characters.
The Imam (a) said: No, Jabir. Do not misunderstand the matter. It is enough for a man to claim that he loves and follows Ali (a). As a matter of fact, if he claims that he loves the Prophet (s) who is preferable to Ali (a) but he does not follow the Prophet’s traditions and does not act upon his instructions, such claim of love will be definitely useless. Hence, you should fear Allah and work for the cause of obtaining that which He has in possession. There is no relation between Allah and anybody. The most favorable and honorable servants of Allah are the most God-fearing and the most pious.
O Jabir, the only means through which a servant seeks to gain Allah’s favor is the obedience to Him. We –the Prophet’s household- do not carry a patent for saving from Hell. Likewise, none of you has a claim against Allah. He who obeys Allah is only our disciple and whoever disobeys Him is our enemy. The loyalty to us cannot be gained except by means of diligent work and piety.

(23) The Shia of Ali meet the needs of each other and love each other

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from al-Abbas bin Marouf from al-Hasan bin Ali bin Faddhal from Zharif bin Nasih… that Mohammed bin Ali (a) said:

The Shia of Ali (a) are surely those who meet the needs of each other for the sake of (their loyalty to) our leadership, love each other for the sake of our cherishment, and exchange visits for the sake of proclaiming our affairs. They do not oppress when they are enraged and do not exaggerate when they are pleased. They are blessings for their neighbors and peace for their associates.

(24) The Shia of Ali are pale, thin, and emaciated

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Ahmed bin Idris from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Mohammed bin Easa from Abu Mohammed al-Ansari from Amr bin Abi al-Miqdam from his father that Abu Ja’far (a) said to him:

O Abu al-Miqdam, the Shia of Ali (a) are the pale, the thin, and the emaciated. Their lips are dry, their stomachs are atrophied, and their colors are faded.

(25) The Shia of Ali are those whose voices do not exceed their hearings

The same previous series of narration… that Abu Ja’far (a) said to Jabir:
O Jabir, the Shia of Ali (a) are only those whose voices do not exceed their hearings and detestation does not exceed their bodies. They do not praise those who abhor us, regard those who hate us, or associate with those who revile at us. The true Shia of Ali (a) do not bark like dogs, covet like craws, or beg people openly even if they starve. Their living is hardly sufficient. Their dwellings are roving. When they are present, they are not recognized. When they are absent, they are not missed. When they are ailed, nobody visit them. When they die, nobody participate in their funeral ceremonies. They exchange visits in their graves.

Jabir asked: Where can I find such people?
The Imam (a) answered: You will find them living in the outskirts and among the marts. They are the intendeds in Allah’s saying: They are humble towards the believers and dignified to the unbelievers. (5:54)

(26) The Shia say only the truth

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin al-Waleed, Allah may please him, … from al-Mufaddhal bin Qays that Abu Abdullah (a) asked him about the number of the Shia in Kufa.
He answered: They are fifty thousand.
The Imam (a) said: Do you hope they were less?
He went on saying until he said:
Do you hope they were twenty individuals? By Allah I swear, I wish they were twenty five individuals provided that they acknowledge our beliefs and say about us nothing but the truth.”

(27) The sweetness of faith is in the Shia’s chests

Mohammad bin Ali Majilwayh, Allah may have mercy upon him, …
In al-Hira during the reign of Abu al-Abbas, Abu Ja’far ad-Dawaniqi said to Imam Abu Abdullah (a) “O Abu Abdullah, I noticed that any individual of the Shia speak out all that he hides in one session so that his trend would be easily known. Why is that?”
The Imam (a) answered: This is because of the sweetness of faith that the Shia carry in their chests. For that sweetness, they show the hidden all at once.

(28) The best of the Shia are the most knowledgeable

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Ahmed bin Idris from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Ibn Abi Umair that one of the Imams (a) said:
Some of you offer more prayers than others do. Some perform the hajj more often than others do. Some give alms more than others do. Some observe the fasting more than others do. The best of you, however, are the most knowledgeable.

(29) The Shia’s concern, and their enemies’ concern

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Mohammed bin Yahya al-Attar from … al-Mufaddhal bin Ziyad al-Abdi that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
We are truthful household. Your main concern is the affairs of your religion. The main concern of your enemies is you. Their hearts are full of enmity against you. They distort the words that they hear from you, consider other things as equal to you, and they accuse you of such things out of slander. This is surely a sufficient act of disobedience in the sight of Allah.

(30) The Shia are saved from adultery

Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Yahya al-Attar from … Mohammed bin Yahya bin Sadir that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
On the Day of Resurrection, all the creatures will be called with the names of their mothers. We, as well as our Shia, are not bound by this act, because we are saved from adultery.

(31) The large numbers of the Shia’s enemies

Al-Hasan bin Ahmed from his father that Abdullah bin Jibilla al-Kinani related:
A fish was hanging down my hand when I met Abu al-Hasan Musa bin Ja’far (a). He asked me to throw that fish and said:

I do not like for the noble men to carry cheap things themselves.
He then added: O Shia, your enemies are numerous. All people antagonized you. Hence, you should keep good appearances before them as much as possible.

(32) The Shiite behaves nicely and provides the grand matter

Mohammed bin Ali Majilwayh narrated to me from his uncle Mohammed bin Abi al-Qasim from Harun bin Muslim that Mas’ada bin Sadaqa related:
As he was asked about the Shia, Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Our Shia are those who prefer what they favor, withhold what they find ugly, behave nicely, and provide the grand matter out of their desire for the mercy of the Magnificent Allah. Those are from, belong to, and accompany us wherever we are.

(33) The qualities of the Shia

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Himyari from … al-Asbagh bin Nubata related:

We were gathering when Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) went out and asked about the reason of our gathering. “We are your Shia, Amir ul-Mu'minin,” we answered. He said, “But I cannot see the marks of the Shia on your faces.” “What are the marks of the Shia?” asked we. He (a) spoke:
The Shia are pale-faced because of staying up at nights for offering prayers, bleary-eyed because of fear of Allah, and dry-lipped because of fasting. The dust of the submissive covers them.

(34) As-Sadiq (a) describes the Shia

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from … Abu Bassir related:
I asked Abu Abdullah (a): May Allah make me your sacrifice. Describe the Shia for me.
He said: Our Shia are only those whose voices do not exceed their hearings and detestation does not exceed their bodies. They do not burden others with their loads. They do not ask anybody other than their friends even if they starve. Our Shia do not bark like dogs or covet like craws. Our Shia’s livings are hardly sufficient and their dwellings are roving. Our Shia are those who dedicate a definite right in their wealth. They help each other, do not worry about death, and exchange visits in their graves.
I asked: Where can I find such people?

He (a) answered: You will find them living in the outskirts and among the marts. They are the intendeds in Allah’s saying: They are humble towards the believers and dignified to the unbelievers. (5:54)

(35) Ali (a) describes the God-fearing*

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed related to me from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Ali bin Hassan al-Wasiti from his uncle Abdirrahman bin Kuthair al-Hashimi from Ja’far bin Mohammed that his father (a) related:
A companion of Amir ul-Mu'minin called Homam who was a man devoted to worship said to him, “O Amir ul-Mu'minin, describe to me the pious men in such a way as though I see them.” Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) avoided the reply and said:

O Homam, fear Allah and perform good acts because “verily, Allah is with those who guard (themselves against evil) and those who do good (to others)” (16:128).
Homam was not satisfied with this; therefore, he said, “O Amir ul-Mu'minin, I implore to you by the One Who honored you as He gave you some merits exclusively and favored you as He endowed you with special gifts. Describe the pious man to me.” Hence, he pushed Amir ul-Mu'minin to speak.
Thereupon, Amir ul-Mu'minin stood up, praised Allah, extolled Him, sought His blessings on the holy Prophet, and then spoke:

Now then, Allah, the Glorified the Sublime, created (the things of) creation. He created them without any need for their obedience or being safe from their sinning, because the sin of anyone who sins does not harm Him nor does the obedience of anyone who obeys Him benefit Him. He has distributed among them their livelihood, and has assigned them their positions in the world.
Allah caused Adam and Eve (a) to descend from Paradise as punishment for them since they broke His orders and breached his instruction.

Thus, the God-fearing, in this world, are the people of distinction. Their speech is to the point, their dress is moderate and their gait is humble. They submit to Allah the Sublime and so therefore, they are astonished. They keep their eyes closed to what Allah has made unlawful for them, and they put their ears to that knowledge which is beneficial to them. They remain in the time of trials as though they remain in comfort, because they satisfy themselves with the acts of Allah. If there had not been fixed periods (of life) ordained for each, their spirits would not have remained in their bodies even for the twinkling of an eye because of (their) eagerness for the reward and fear of chastisement. The greatness of the Creator is seated in their heart, and so, everything else appears small in their eyes.

Thus, to them, Paradise is as though they see it and are enjoying its favors. To them, Hell is also as if they see it and are suffering punishment in it. Their hearts are grieved, evils are not expected from them, their bodies are thin, their needs are scanty, their souls are chaste, and their supplies that they take from this world are great. They endured (hardship) for a short while, and, in consequence, they secured comfort for a long time. It is a beneficial transaction that the All-generous Lord made easy for them. The world aimed at them, but they did not aim at it. It captured them, but they freed themselves from it.

During a night, they are upstanding on their feet reading portions of the Quran and reciting it in a well-measured way, creating through it grief for themselves, bearing good tidings for themselves, stirring their sorrows for their sins, and seeking by it the cure for their ailments. When they come across a Verse, which contains fear (of Hell), they bend the ears of their hearts towards it, and feel as though the sound of Hell and its cries are reaching their ears. When they come across a Verse creating eagerness (for Paradise), they pursue it avidly, and their spirits turn towards it eagerly, and they feel as if it is in front of them. They bend themselves from their backs, glorify Allah the Sublime the Omnipotent, and prostrate themselves on their foreheads, their palms, their toes, and their knees. Their tears are flowing on their cheeks. They pray ardently to Allah for releasing them (from Hell).

During the day, they are enduring, learned, virtuous and God-fearing. Fear (of Allah) has made them thin like arrows. If any one looks at them, he believes they are sick, although they are not sick, and he says that they have gone mad. In fact, great concern (i.e., fear) has made them mad. If they ponder over the greatness and absolute power of Allah, along with the mention of death and the terrors of the Day of Resurrection that affect them deeply, their hearts become frightened, their minds agitated, and their mentalities astonished. If they wake up, they take the initiative to doing the pure acts to Allah. They are not satisfied with their meager good acts and do not regard their major acts as great. They always blame themselves and are afraid of their deeds.

When anyone of them is spoken of highly, he says: “I know myself better than others do, and my Lord knows me better than I know. O Allah do not blame me for what they say, and make me better than what they think of me and forgive me (those shortcomings) which they do not know. You are surely the knower of the things unseen and the coverer of the defects.”

The peculiarity of anyone of them is that you will see that he has strength in religion, determination along with leniency, faith with conviction, eagerness in (seeking) knowledge, understanding along with comprehension, knowledge along with clemency, gain along with lenience, kindness along with almsgiving, moderation in riches, devotion in worship, sufferance in starvation, endurance in hardship, mercy for the efforts, rightful giving, lenience in seeking earnings, desire for the lawful, pleasure in guidance, hatred from greed, piety with straightforwardness, and uninterest in appetite.
He is not deceived by the praise of the ignorant and does not forget to evaluate his past deeds. He regards all his acts as slow.

He performs virtuous deeds but still feels afraid. In the evening, he is anxious to offer thanks (to Allah). In the morning, his anxiety is to remember (Allah). He passes the night in fear and rises in the morning in joy — fear lest night is passed in forgetfulness, and joy over the favor and mercy received by him. If his self refuses to endure a thing, which it does not like, he does not grant its request towards what it likes. His delight lies in that which will remain forever and last long. The coolness of his eye lies in what is to last forever. His desire lies in that which will continue, while from the things (of this world) that will not last, he keeps aloof. He transfuses knowledge with forbearance, and speech with action.

You will see his laziness remote, his activity ceaseless, his hopes simple, his shortcomings few, his expectation is the coming of death, his heart fearing, his reference is to his Lord, his fear is of his sin, his spirit contented, his ignorance absent, his affairs easy, his religion safe, his desires dead, his rage suppressed, his manners pure, his neighbor secured, his pride weak, his steadfastness strong, reference to Allah very frequent, and his matters decisive.

He does not divulge that which the friends ask to keep secret and does not conceal a testimony for the enemies. He does not act any deed out of showing off and does not neglect acting it out of pudency. Good alone is expected from him. Evil from him is not to be feared. Even if he is found among those who forget (Allah), he is counted among those who remember (Him), but if he is among those who remember (Allah), he is not counted among the forgetful.

He forgives him who is unjust to him, he gives to him who deprives him, and he behaves well with him who behaves ill with him. His forbearance is never absent and he does not hurry up in matters that he suspects. He overlooks him whose fault is shown to him. Indecent speech is far from him, his utterance is lenient, his evils are non-existent, his virtues are ever present, his speech is truthful, his deeds are good, his good is ahead, and mischief has turned its face (from him). He is dignified during calamities, patient in distresses, and thankful during ease. He does not commit excess over him whom he hates, and does not commit sin for the sake of him whom he loves. He does not claim of possessing that which is not his and does not deny the right that is incumbent upon him. He admits truth before evidence is brought against him. He does not misappropriate what is placed in his custody, and does not forget what he is required to remember. He does not call others bad names, he does not oppress anybody, he does not take the initiative in envy, he does not cause harm to his neighbor, and he does not feel happy at others misfortunes.

He hurries to offer the prayers, keeps the trusts that are deposited with him so honestly, slows down in acting the evil deeds, enjoins good, forbids evil, does not engage himself in matters ignorantly, and does not go out of the right out of his failure. If he is silent, his silence does not grieve him. If he speaks, he does not err. If he laughs, he does not raise his voice beyond his hearing.

He is satisfied with that which is decided for him. Rage does not cause his to exceed the limits, passion does not overcome him, and stinginess does not predominate him. He is not greed for that which is not his. He associates with people so as to learn, keeps silent so as to save himself, puts questions so as to understand, and investigates so as to have knowledge. His silence is not purposed for making people wondering at him and his wording is not purposed for priding himself on others.

If he is wronged, he endures until Allah takes revenge on his behalf. His own self is in distress because of him, while the people are in ease from him. He puts himself in hardship for the sake of his next life, and makes people feel safe from himself. His keeping away from others is by way of asceticism and purification, and his nearness to those to whom he is near is by way of leniency and mercifulness. His keeping away is not by way of vanity or feeling of greatness, nor is his nearness by way of deceit and cheating. He imitates the virtuous people who preceded him and is the leader of the pious people who will come after him.

It is related that Homam passed into a deep swoon and then expired. Then Amir ul-Mu'minin said: “Verily, by Allah I had this fear about him.”

The Imam (a) ordered people to prepare Homam’s funeral ceremonies. He offered the Deceased Prayer on his body. Then he added: “Effective advises produce such effects on receptive minds.”
Someone said to him: “O Amir ul-Mu'minin, how is it you do not receive such an effect?” Amir ul-Mu'minin replied: “Woe to you. For death, there is a fixed hour, which cannot be exceeded and a cause, which does not change. Now look, never repeat such talk, which the Shaitan had put on your tongue.”

36. The Shiite in anger and satisfaction

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah… from Safwan bin Mehran that Abu Abdullah (a) said:

The true believer is he whose rage does not take him out of the right and whose satisfaction does not enter him into the wrong. When he has power, he should not seize more than that which is his right.

(37) God-fearing is in hearts

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah… from Ali bin Abdil-Aziz that Abu Abdullah (a) said to him:
O Ali bin Abdil-Aziz, do not be deceived by their weeping. God-fearing is surely in the heart.

(38) The Imams’ commandments to the Shia

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated from … Abdullah bin Sinan that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:
O servants of Allah, I command you to cling to God-fearing. Do not disregard people so that you will not be humiliated. Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, says in His Book: Speak righteous words to people. (2:83)

He (a) then said: Visit the ailed people, participate in their funeral ceremonies, testify for and against them, offer prayer with them in their mosques, and fulfill their rights.

He (a) then said: Some people claim being our followers and acting upon our commandments, but they do not observe the matters of which we order them and do not stop committing the acts that we forbid. Moreover, they divulge our secrets before our enemies, who come to us for interrogating whether we had really said such things. In such cases, we have to deny and disavow everyone who divulges such matters. Thus, our disavowal includes such people.

(39) The Shia, truthfulness, and faithfulness

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Mohammed bin al-Hussein bin Abu al-Khattab… that Abdullah bin Ziyad related:

In Mina, we greeted Abu Abdullah (a) and said, “O son of Allah’s Messenger, we are itinerant people. We cannot attend your sessions. Hence, we ask you to give us some advices.” The Imam (a) said:
Cling to God-fearing, truthfulness, fulfillment of the trusts that are deposited with you, good company with whoever accompanies you, spread of salutation, and serving of food.

Offer prayers in the mosques of people, visit the ailed, and participate in their funeral ceremonies. My father told me that the adherents of us –the Prophet’s household- were the best of their folks. The jurisprudent of any people was the Shiite. The muezzin of any people was the Shiite. The most trustful of any people was the Shiite. The most dependable of any people was the Shiite. Thus, you should carry such characters. Lead people to love us. Do not make them hate us.

(40) The Shia are known from their worship and faces

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Ali bin Ibrahim bin Hashim from his father from Ismaeel bin Mehran from Hamran bin Aayun that Abu Abdullah (a) related:
Ali bin al-Hussein (a) was sitting in his house when the door was knocked. He asked one of his bondmaids to open the door. “We are some of your Shia,” they shouted from behind the door. As soon as he heard this statement, the Imam jumped so hurriedly that he was about to fall down. When he opened the door, he took back and said:

You are lying. Where are the marks of your faces? Where are the signs of worship? Where are the features of prostration? Our Shia are characterized by their worship and shagginess. Their noses are impaired due to worship, and their foreheads, as well as organs of prostration, are effaced. Their stomachs are atrophied, and their lips are withered. Worship has changed their faces, staying up at nights has fatigued them, and hot weather has affected their bodies. They praise Allah when people are silent, offer prayers when people are asleep, and are sad when people are happy. Their distinctive feature is asceticism. Their wording is mercy and their main concern is Paradise.

(41) The Shia and the disavowal of the Jibt and Taghut

Ali bin Ahmed bin Abdullah narrated to us from his father from his grandfather from Ahmed bin Abi Abdullah al-Barqi from his father from Amr bin Shemr from Abdullah that Imam as-Sadiq (a) said:
He who believes in seven things is (regarded as) believer: the disavowal of the Jibt and Taghut, the declaration of the divine leadership (of the Imams), the belief of rajaa, the legality of the temporary marriage, the illegality of the (flesh of) eel, and the illegality of passing the (wet) hands over the slippers (during the ritual ablutions).

(42) Manners of the believers

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Himyari from Harun bin Muslim from Mas’ada bin Sadaqa:
As he was asked about the clear resoluteness that is seen in the manners of the believers, Abu Abdullah (a) answered:
This is because of the existence of the glory of the Quran in the believers’ hearts and the existence of the purity of faith in their chests. They worship Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, obey Him, and believe the Messenger of Allah.

They asked: What about the stinginess that is noticed in the believers’ manners?
He (a) answered: This is because the believers seek only legal earnings. To seek legal earnings is something very hard; therefore, the believers dislike to forsake the things that they exerted all efforts painstakingly to obtain. When they are generous, they spend so properly.
They asked: What are the characters of the believers?

He (a) answered: The believers sleep like the drowned, eat like the ailed, weep like the mother that is bereaved of her child, and sit like the one against whom people are rallied.
They asked: Why are the believers more importunate than others are in the question of marriage?
He (a) answered: This is because the believers restrain their carnal desires and do not violate the others’ honors. Besides, they do so in order that their sexual drives will not lead them astray. If a believer gains the legal, he satisfies himself with it and dispends with anything else.
• Imam as-Sadiq (a) also said:

Only the believers enjoy three characters altogether: the knowledge of Allah, knowledge of those whom they like, and knowledge of those whom they dislike.
• He (a) also said:
A believer’s power lies in his heart; therefore, he stays up at nights (for worship) and observes fasting during days while his body is weak and thin.
• He (a) also said:
With regard to his religion, the believer is firmer than the unshakable mountains. One can take from the unshakable mountains, while no one can take anything from the beliefs of the believers, for they are so observant and abiding by his religion.

(43) The believer, the Muslim, and the Muhajir

(The same series of relaters)… The Prophet (s) said:
Do you know why the believers are called so? This is because people can entrust them with their souls and fortunes.
May I tell you about the true Muslims? The true Muslims are those from whose hands –i.e. acts- and tongues –i.e. words- people are saved.
May I tell you about the true Muhajirs? They are those who deserted the sins as well as everything that Allah has forbidden.

(44) The believer is displeased by his evil deeds

(The same previous series of relaters)… The Prophet (s) said:
He who is displeased by his evil deeds and pleased by his good deeds is believer.

45. The ugly believer

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated from Sa’d bin Abdullah from … Hebbab al-Wasiti that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
It is very ugly for a believer to be humiliated by his desires.

(46) Leprosy is semi-curse

(The same previous series of relaters)… Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Leprosy is semi-curse. Neither we, nor will our descendants and Shia be affected by leprosy.

(47) The believer is firmer than blocks of iron

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Hussein bin Amr said that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The believer is firmer than blocks of iron. Iron is changed when it is subjected to fire, while the believer will not be changed even if he is killed, cut by a saw, and then killed anew.

(48) Allah created the believers from the same origin

Al-Hasan bin Ahmed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated from… al-Mufaddhal that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Allah, Blessed and Exalted is He, has created all the believers from the same origin. No one is added to them and no one of them is excluded. By Allah (I swear), they are like a head for a body and fingers for a hand. If you notice anyone unlike this description, you should know that he is hypocrite.

(49) Winter is the believer’s spring

Mohammad bin Ali Majilwayh, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from… Mohammed bin Sulaiman ad-Dailami that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Winter is the believer’s spring. Its long nights help the believer offer his rites of worship.

(50) The believer and the worldly misfortunes

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Muawiya bin Ammar that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Allah has not insured the believers against the worldly misfortunes. In fact, He insures them against the blindness in the Hereafter and the unhappiness –i.e. sightlessness.

(51) The believer is not unblessed

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Saeed bin Ghazwan that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The believer is not unblessed.

(52) Qualities of the believer

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Ahmed bin Mohammed from as-Salih Bin Maitham that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
He who enjoys three characters has the qualities of faith in perfect: to tolerate the wrong, to suppress the anger, and to pardon for the sake of gaining Allah’s rewards. For anyone who enjoys such characters, Allah will take him to Paradise and will grant him the right to intercede for individuals as many as the individuals of (the tribes of) Rabeea and Madhar.

(53) Steadfastness against misfortunes

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Zaid that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
You will not be considered as believers before you become trustworthy and regard the favor of luxury as misfortune. In fact, to be steadfast against misfortunes is better than to enjoy good health with luxury.

(54) Ethics and moralities of the believer

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed that a man asked Abu Abdullah (a) to describe the believer. He (a) said:

The believer enjoys strength with religiousness, determination with lenience, faith with conviction, carefulness with understanding, activity with right guidance, charity with straightforwardness, overlooking with appetite, knowledge with clemency, wit with indulgence, rightful openhandedness, moderation in wealth, temperance in poverty, pardon in ability, obedience with advice, godliness in desires, prudence in jihad, praying in concern, and steadfastness against hardship. In shaking disasters, he is solemn. In misfortunes, he is steadfast. In luxury, he is thankful. He does not backbite anyone, pride himself against anyone, or oppress anyone. He shows tolerance when he is oppressed. He does not rupture his relations with his relatives. He is not weak, rude, or coarse. His sight does not precede him, his stomach does not disgrace him, and his carnal desire does not dominate him. He does not envy others. He does not scant, waste, or exceed the proper limits. He only economizes.

He supports the wronged and compassions the poor. His own self is in distress because of him, while the people are in ease from him. He does not desire for the dignity of this world and does not worry about people’s humiliation.

People are engaged in their concerns while the believer has his own concern. He does not see any blemish in his clemency, any weakness in his opinion, or any waste in his religion. He guides him whoever seeks his consultation, helps him who helped him, and refrains from the wrong, the obscene language, and ignorance. These are the moralities of the believer.

(55) The believer is powerful in the religion

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed from Abu al-Alaa that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The true believer is feared by everything, for he is powerful in the religion of Allah and he does not fear anything. This is the distinctive feature of the believers.

(56) Everything is submissive to the believer

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mohammed bin Ahmed from … Safwan al-Jammal that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:
Everything is submissive to the believer.
He (a) then added:
Allah will cause everything, including vermin, beasts, and birds, to fear the believer if he is sincere to Allah.

(57) In the heavens, the believer gives light as same as the stars’

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ahmed bin al-Hasan bin Ali bin Faddhal from … Ammar bin Musa that Abu Abdullah (a) was asked whether the inhabitants of the heavens can see the inhabitants of the earth. He (a) answered:
The inhabitants of the heavens can see only the believers, because they give light like the light of the stars.

Some asked: Can they see the people on this earth markedly?
He (a) answered: No, they cannot. They can only see their lights wherever they go.
He (a) then added: On the Day of Resurrection, every believer will be given five hours during which he will be granted the right of intercession.

(58) The believer and his enemy

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from … al-Harithi from Ziyad al-Qandi that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
To see the enemy plunge in the acts of disobedience to Allah is a sufficient victory that Allah bestows upon the servant.

(59) The believer is neither coward nor stingy

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from … al-Harithi that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Anyone who enjoys stinginess, envy, and cowardice cannot be believer. The believer is never coward, stingy, or acquisitive.

(60) The believer is self-righteous

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Mohammed bin Yahya al-Attar from one of his companions that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
The believer is self-righteous. He is more sincere with himself than seventy believers.

(61) The believer has characters from his Lord, Prophet, and Imam

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Ahmed bin Idris from Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Yahya bin Imran al-Ash’ari from Sahl bin Ziyad from al-Harith bin ad-Delhath (the servant of Imam ar-Ridha) that Abu al-Hasan (a) said:

A servant will not be a faithful believer before he learns three characters: one from the Lord, one from His Messenger, and one from the Imam. The character that he should learn from Allah is the concealment of secrets. Allah the Glorified says: He knows the unseen and He does not allow anyone to know His secrets… (72:28)

The character that he should learn from the Prophet (s) is that he should treat people courteously. Allah says: Take the surplus, preach the truth, and keep away from the ignorant ones. (7:199)
The character that he should learn from the Imam (a) is to be steadfast against situations of misfortune and crises. Allah says: … and those who exercise patience in poverty and in distress. (2:177)

(62) The intention to do good or bad

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Sa’d bin Abdullah from … Ali bin Saaih that Abdullah bin Musa bin Ja’far (a) related:
I asked my father (Imam al-Kadhim) whether the Keeping Angels know the good or bad deed before the servant acts them.
He asked me: Is the smell of the toilet as same as the perfume?
I answered: Of course not.

He (a) said: In the same manner, when a servant intends to do a good deed, his breath becomes sweet-smelling. In this case, the angel on the right says to the angel on the left, ‘Stop it. He intends to do a good deed.’ If the servant does that good deed, his tongue stands for the pen (with which the good deed will be recorded) and his saliva stands for the ink and, hence, the angel will record it for him.

When the servant intends to do an evil deed, his breath becomes stinking. In this case, the angel on the left says to the angel on the right, ‘Stop it. He intends to do an evil deed.’ If the servant commits that evil deed, his tongue stands for the pen (with which the good deed will be recorded) and his saliva stands for the ink and, hence, the angel will record it against him.

(63) Amir ul-Muminin describes the sincere
Mohammed bin Salih narrated to me from (…) Abu al-Abbas ad-Dainouri that Mohammed bin al-Hanafiyya related:

Al-Ahnaf bin Qays invited Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) in Basra after the Battle of the Camel. When Amir ul-Mu'minin responded to the invitation, he asked al-Ahnaf to invite his companions, too. Al-Ahnaf did.
After that, some people who were very reverent as if they were worn out skins came in. “O Amir ul-Mu'minin,” asked al-Ahnaf, “What happened to those people? Was it because scarce of food or was it because of the terror of war?”

Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) answered:

No, Ahnaf. It was not. Allah, Glorified is He, loved some people who worshipped Him devotedly in this world as if they were under blockade, because He has known their dread of the Day of Resurrection before they have witnessed it. They therefore exerted all their possible efforts in this regard. If they remember that morning when the creatures will be brought before their Lord, they imagine a line comes out of Hell to gather all the creatures before their Lord and imagine a record that is opened before the Witnesses and uncovers all of their sins. Thus, their souls are about to run flowingly, their hearts are about to fly with wings of fear highly, and their minds are as if they are boiling in a cauldron.
They have longed (for meeting Allah) like the longing of the distracted in the murk and they have been distressed because of the fear of that to which they dedicated themselves. Thus, they have become weak-bodied, brokenhearted, gloomy-faced, dry-lipped, and atrophied-stomached. You see them as if they are drunk; they talk in the loneliness of nights and are submissive like worn out skins. They have offered their acts to Allah so sincerely in secret and in public. Their hearts have never felt secure because of their fear of Allah. They have behaved as if they were the guards of the domes of their tributes.

Were you to see them at nights—when the eyes are asleep, the sounds are quiet, and the movements of the birds in their nests are calm—the threatening horror of the Day of Resurrection has deterred them from sleeping, just as Allah says: “Did the people of the towns think themselves secure from Our wrath that could strike them at night during their sleep? (7:97)” So, they wake up panic-stricken, hurried to their prayers crying—they, sometimes, weep and sometimes praise Allah. In their places of worship, they weep and resound. At gloomy nights, they weep.

Were you, O Ahnaf, to see them at nights standing on their limbs with the backs bent. They recite the parts of the Quran in their prayers. Their wailing, lamenting, and sighing are very deep. If they sigh, you think as if the fire (of Hell) has taken them from the throat. If they wail, you think as if the chains are fastened on their necks. If you look at them in days, you see the people who “walk gently on the earth,” say “good wording to people,” “when addressed by the ignorant ones, their only response is, ‘Peace be with you,’” and “when they come across something impious, they pass it by nobly.” They have prevented their feet from inspecting the people’s defects, stopped their tongues from mentioning the people’s honors, checked their hearings from interfering in the others’ reference to the wrong, feasted their eyes on turning them away from (looking at) the acts of disobedience to Allah, and directed towards the Abode of Peace—he whoever enters there will be saved from doubt and griefs.

It seems, O Ahnaf, that you have been engaged by looking at the face of that one which afflicts you with (various sorts of) misfortunes in the very moment you enjoy looking at its flourishing face, and you have been engaged by looking at the drawings of the portico of that lodging, as well as its hanged curtains, while wind and hot weather are charged with its fruits. Nevertheless, that lodging, which is definitely not your permanent abode, has distracted you from (working for) the Final Abode that Allah created from a white pearl, holed rivers, planted trees, cast shadows of its ripen fruits over it, and filled in it with the young women. Then, He will house (permanently) His disciples and obedient people there.

Were you, O Ahnaf, to see them when they will come to their Lord the Glorified. When their mares are stricken, their riding she-camels will make such a nice sound that no one has ever heard its like. A cloud that rains musk and saffron will overshadow them. Their mares will neigh between the plants of the gardens (of Paradise), and their she-camels will take them between the heights of saffron. They will walk gravely on pearls and corals. The curators of Paradise will receive them with the pulpits of basil. A wind from the direction of the Divine Throne will then disperse over them jasmine and daisy. When they approach the portals (of Paradise), Ridhwan will open them in their faces and they will prostrate themselves for Allah 

The Merits of the Shia

Fadhail ush-Shia

By: Shaikh Saduq

In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate the Merciful

All Praise is Due to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds.

All Blessings be upon Mohammed and His Immaculate Household

Abu Ja’far Mohammed bin Ali bin al-Hussein bin Musa bin Babawayh (the compiler of this book) says:

1. Ali’s rank is as same as the Prophet’s

My father, Allah may please him, related to us from Abdullah bin al-Hussein al-Mueddib from Ahmed bin Ali al-Isfahani from Mohammed bin Aslam at-Tusi from Abu Rajaa from Hemmad bin Zaid from Abdirrahman as-Sarraj from Nafii that Ibn Omar said:

When we asked him about Ali bin Abi Talib, the Prophet (s) was angry and said:

Why do some people mention that one whose rank in the sight of Allah is as same as mine?

He who loves Ali loves me, and Allah will accept him who loves me, and whomever Allah accepts will be rewarded with Paradise.

Whoever loves Ali will not depart this world before he drinks from the Divine River of Kawthar, eats from the Divine Tree of Tuba, and sees his place in Paradise.

Whoever loves Ali will have his prayers, fasting, and worship accepted and will have his supplications responded.

Whoever loves Ali, the angels will seek Allah’s forgiveness for him and the eight portals of Paradise will all be opened before him so that he can choose the one which takes him to Paradise.

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will give him his record (of deeds) in his right hand and will call him to account in the same way as He calls His prophets.

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will alleviate for him the agonies of death and will change his grave into a garden of Paradise.

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will give him in marriage women of Paradise as many as the arteries of his body, will grant him the right to intercede for eighty individuals from his family members, and will give him women and cities of Paradise as many as the hairs of his body.

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will send the Angel of Death to him in the same way as He sends him to the prophets, will save him from the horrible interrogation of Munkar and Nakeer, will lighten his heart, will whiten his face, and will join him with Hamza; the master of the martyrs.

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will save him from the fire (of Hell.)

Whoever loves Ali, Allah will place wisdom in his heart firmly, will make the truth slide on his tongue, and will open before him the doors to His mercy.

Whoever loves Ali will be called ‘the prisoner of Allah’ in the heavens and the earth.

Whoever loves Ali, an angel from beneath the Divine Throne will call at him: O servant of Allah, make a new start, for Allah has forgiven all of your sins.

Whoever loves Ali will attend on the Day of Resurrection with a face that is as bright as the full moon.

Whoever loves Ali will be crowned and will be dressed the garment of honor.

Whoever loves Ali will pass the Path like the swift lightning.

Whoever loves Ali will be granted an acquittance from Hell, a permit to pass the Path, and a security against the punishment. Besides, no record of judgment will be opened for him, no balance (for weighing his good acts and evil acts for identifying which one is more) will be maintained for him, and it will be said to him, ‘Enter Paradise without judgment.’

Whoever loves Ali, the angels will shake hands with him, the prophets will visit him, and Allah will settle all of his needs.

Whoever loves the family of Mohammed will be saved from the Judgment, the Balance, and the Path.
Whoever dies on the love for the family of Mohammed, I guarantee for him a place in Paradise with the prophets.

Whoever dies on the hatred for the family of Mohammed will never smell the essence of Paradise.

((Abu Rajaa commented: Hemmad bin Zaid used to take pride in this, for he considered it as the only hope.))

2. The merit of the love for the family of Mohammed

Al-Hasan bin Abdullah bin Saeed narrated to us from Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Hamdan al-Qushairi from al-Mugheera bin Mohammed bin al-Muhallab al-Azdi from Abdul-Ghaffar bin Mohammed al-Kelabi from Amir bin Thabit from Jabir that Abu Ja’far related on the authority of Ali bin al-Hussein from his father, peace be upon them all, that the Prophet (s) said:

The love for my household and me will help in seven situations whose horrors are enormous: at death, in the grave, in the Resurrection, in the Recorded Account, in the Judgment, in the Balance, and on the Path.

3. The Shia will be the most sure-footed on the Path

Ja’far bin Ali bin al-Hasan bin Ali bin Abdullah bin al-Mugheera narrated to us from his grandfather from his grandfather from Ismaeel bin Muslim ash-Shuairi from Ja’far bin Mohammed as-Sadiq (a) that the Prophet (s) said:

The most sure-footed of you on the Path will be the most loving for my household.

4. The love for Ali is in the believer’s heart

Al-Hussein bin Ibrahim, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated from Ahmed bin Yahya from Bakr bin Abdullah from Mohammed bin Ubaidullah from Ali bin al-Hakam from Husham from Abu Hamza ath-Themali that Abu Ja’far Mohammed bin Ali relates on the authority of his fathers, peace be upon them all, that the Prophet (s) said to Ali:

For any believer who has the love for you fixed in his heart, if one of his feet slips on the Path, the other will be firm so that Allah will take him to Paradise for his love to you.

5. The Shia will have security and faith

Ali bin Mohammed bin al-Hasan al-Qizwini (Abu al-Hasan Ibn Maqbara) narrated to us from Mohammed bin Abdullah bin Aamir from Essam bin Yousuf from Mohammed bin Ayyoub al-Kelabi from Amr bin Sulaiman from Abdullah bin Imran from Ali bin Zaid from Saeed bin al-Musayyab from Zaid bin Thabit that the Prophet (s) said:

For anyone who loves Ali in his lifetime and after his death, Allah will grant him security and faith as long as the sun rises and sets. Anyone who hates Ali in his lifetime and after his death will die as if he has never been Muslim and will be called to account for his deeds.

6. People will be interrogated about the love for the Prophet’s family

Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Ali al-Asadi (Ibn Jurada al-Barda’i) narrated to us from Ruqayya bint Ishaq bin Musa bin Ja’far bin Mohammed bin Ali bin al-Hussein bin Ali bin Abi Talib, peace be upon them all, related on the authority of her fathers that the Prophet (s) said:

On the Day of Resurrection, a servant’s feet will not move before he is asked about four matters. He will be asked how he had spent the age of his youth, how he had finished his age, what earnings he had got and where from he had got them and how he had spent them, and he will be also asked about his affection to us; the Prophet’s family.

7. The Shia enjoy ranks higher than the angels’

Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Abdul-Wahab narrated to us from Abu al-Hasan Mohammed bin Ahmed al-Qawariri from Abu al-Hussein Mohammed bin Ammar from Ismaeel bin Tawba from Ziyad bin Abdullah al-Bukaai from Sulaiman bin al-Amish that Abu Saeed al-Khidri related:

We were sitting with the Prophet (s) when a man came and asked him:

“O Allah’s Messenger, Allah says: ‘Eblis, what prevented you from prostrating before what I have created with My own hands? Was it because of your pride or are you one of those who are exalted?’ (38:75) Who are those exalted ones whose ranks are higher than the angels’?”

The Prophet (s) answered: Those are Ali, Fatima, al-Hasan, al-Hussein, and I. We were in the pavilion of the Divine Throne praising Allah. The angels were imitating us. That was two thousand years before the creation of Adam.

When He created Adam, Allah, Powerful and Exalted is He, ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. Allah did not include us in this order. All of the angels therefore prostrated except Eblis who rejected to prostrate.

Referring to the five individuals whose names are recorded on the pavilion of the Divine Throne, Allah said to Eblis, ‘Was it because of your pride or are you one of those who are exalted?’

Thus, we are the doors that take to Allah. We guide the followers of the right path. For him whoever loves us, Allah will love him and house him in His Paradise. For him who hates us, Allah will hate him and house him in Hell. Only do the legitimate sons love us.

8. The Shia’s ranks in the sight of the Imams

Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Abdul-Wahab narrated to us from … Mohammed bin Hamran from his father that Abu Abdullah Ja’far bin Mohammed as-Sadiq (a) related:

One day, my father and I went out to the mosque. We met some people who were taking the place between the tomb and the mimbar. My father approached and greeted them. He then said:

I, by Allah, love you as well as your smells and souls. Hence, help us keep on so by means of your piety and diligence. You should know that the loyalty to us cannot be obtained except by means of piety and diligence. He who follows someone should imitate his deeds. You are the Shia of Allah, you are the supporters of Allah, and you are the foremost forerunners, the last forerunners, the foremost to the love for us in this world, and the foremost to win Paradise on the Last Day.

I have guaranteed Paradise for you, for the guarantee that is granted by Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, and the Prophet (s). You are the highborn and your women are the highborn. Each believing female will be woman of Paradise, and each believing male will be veracious.

More than once, Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) said to Qanbar, ‘Be happy and announce this good news. When the Prophet (s) died, he was discontent with all of the individuals of his umma except the Shia.

Everything has a handle. The handle of the religion is the Shia.

Everything has its honor. The honor of the religion is the Shia.

Everything has a master. The master of the sessions is the sessions of the Shia.

Everything has a leader. The leader of this earth is the land on which the Shia live.

Everything has desire. The desire of this world is our Shia’ living in it.

By Allah I swear, had it not been for your existence on this earth, your dissidents would not have enjoyed the pleasures of their fortunes. Nevertheless, they will not have anything in the world to come. Any Nasibi, no matter how diligently he worships and works, is included in this Verse: “On that day, the faces of some people will be humbly cast down, troubled and tired as a result of their deeds in the past. They will suffer the heat of the blazing fire.” (26:2-3) The response of the prayer of your dissidents is yours. Anyone of you who asks one request from Allah will have one hundred requests settled. Anyone of you who asks one question will have one hundred questions answered. Anyone of you who supplicates to Allah once will have the reward of one hundred supplications. Anyone of you who acts one good deed will have it doubled many times. As for anyone of you who commits an evil act, Mohammed (s) will be his advocate.

By Allah I swear, the fasting ones among you will luxuriate in the gardens of Paradise and the angles keep on praying for them to win (Paradise) until they break their fasting. You all are surely the people of the advocacy and the loyalty to Allah. You will not have fear and will not be grieved. You all will be in Paradise; hence, compete with each other in doing good acts.

After us, no one will be nearer to the Divine Throne of Allah than you will on the Day of Resurrection. Were it not for that you might fail, suffer your enemies’ gloating over you, and people might not accept it for you, the angels would greet you in groups.

Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) said: On the Day of Resurrection, the people of our divine leadership will leave their graves with bight faces and delighted eyes. They will be granted security. While all people will be fearful, they –the Shia- will not be fearful. While all people will be grieved, they will not be grieved.

• Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, reported to me this narration after he had related it to al-Hussein bin al-Hasan bin Eban, al-Hussein bin Saeed, Mohammed bin Abi Umair, Ali bin Abi Hamza, and Abu Bassir respectively. Although the contents are nearly the same, this narration includes some paragraphs, which were not in the other one.

9. Our Shia are the masters and the highborn

Abu Tharr, Allah may please him, related:

I saw the Prophet (s) strike on the shoulder of Ali bin Abi Talib (a) and say:

O Ali, he who loves us is the true Arab and he who hates us is the infidel. Our Shia are the masters, the highborn, the honorable, and the legitimate. Only are our Shia and we following the religion of Abraham (a). The remaining people are all out of it –i.e. the religion of Abraham-. Allah and His angels are surely destroying the evil deeds of our Shia in the same way as an axe destroys the building.

10. The love for Ali consumes the evil deeds

Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Abdul-Wahab narrated to us from Hemmad bin Yazid from Ayyoub from Attaa from Ibn Abbas that the Prophet (s) said:

The love for Ali bin Abi Talib consumes the evil deeds in the same way as fire consumes wood.

11. The Shia will be on luminous stages

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Mustafad bin Yahya from Zakariyya from Yahya bin Eban al-Qammat from Mohammed bin Ziyad that Aamir al-Juhani related:

The Prophet (s) entered the mosque while we, including Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman, and Ali, were sitting there. He sat next to Ali (a) and looked to the right and left.

He (s) then spoke:

There will be some men standing to the right and left of the Divine Throne on luminous stages. Their faces will be glittering.

Abu Bakr stood up and said: I sacrifice my father and mother for you, Allah’s Messenger. Will I be one of them?

He (s) said: Sit down.

Omar, then, repeated the same question of Abu Bakr, and the Prophet (s) repeated the same answer.
As he noticed the answers of the Prophet (s) to these two men, Ibn Mas’oud stood up and said: O Allah’s Messenger, describe them for us so that we will recognize them.

The Prophet (s) stroke the shoulder of Ali and said: They will be this man and his Shia. They will be the winners.

12. The Shia will not be punished for their loyalty to the Imams

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from Abdullah bin Ja’far al-Himyari from Ahmed bin Mohammed from al-Hasan bin Mahboub from Husham bin Salem from Habib as-Sejistani from Abu Ja’far (Imam al-Baqir) that the Prophet (s) said:

Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, said: I will punish every Muslim group who recognized the leadership of any unjust ruler whom is not selected by Allah, even if the individuals of such a group are pious and God-fearing. I will, likewise, forgive every Muslim group that recognized (only) the leadership of the just imams whom are appointed by Allah, even if the individuals of such a group are wronging (themselves) and committing bad deeds.

13. The Shia are the people of Allah’s preference and mercy

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us from … al-Mufaddhal from Abu Hamza that Abu Abdullah (a) said:

You are the people of Allah’s greeting and salutation. You are the people of Allah’s preference and mercy, Allah’s success and guard, and the advocacy and the obedience to Allah. No judgment will be maintained for you. No fear and no sadness will affect you.

14. The Shia are not subject to the record

Abu Hamza narrated that he heard Abu Abdullah Ja’far bin Mohammed (a) saying:

By way of Allah’s guard and protection, the Shia are not subject to the record (of the good and evil deeds).

15. The Shia of Ali are the true pious

Abu Hamza narrated that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:

I know some people whom Allah has forgiven, accepted, guarded, compassioned, protected against any evil, supported, guided to every right matter, and taken them to the highest places.

Some asked: Who are they, Abu Abdullah?

He (a) said: These are our pious Shia: the adherents of Ali (a).

16. The Shia are witnesses on people
Abu Abdullah (a) said:
We are witnesses on our Shia, and our Shia are witnesses on people. Due to the testimony of our Shia, people will be rewarded or punished.

17. The rank of Ali’s adorers in the sight of Allah

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Khalid from al-Qasim bin Yahya from his grandfather al-Hasan bin Rashid from Abu Bassir from Abu Abdullah (a) that the Prophet (s) said:

O Ali, Allah has bestowed upon you with the love of the poor and the oppressed on this earth. You have accepted them as brothers and they have accepted you as their imam. Blessed are they who loved and believed you. Woe to them who hated and belied you.

O Ali, you are the most knowledgeable in this umma. He who loves you will win, while whoever hates you will perish.

O Ali, I am the city (of knowledge) and you are its door. How can a city be entered from anything other than its door?

O Ali, the people who love you are every repentant and keeper (of his promises) as well as every wearer of shabby clothes whose supplications are utterly answered by Allah.

O Ali, your brothers are the pure, chaste, and diligent ones who love and hate for your sake. They are humiliated in the sight of people, but they are high-ranking in the sight of Allah.

O Ali, the people who love you will be the neighbors of Allah in the Abode of High Paradise. They do not feel sorry for what they had left in the world.

O Ali, I am the support of him whoever you support and the enemy of him whoever you antagonize.
O Ali, he who loves you loves me and whoever hates you hates me.

O Ali, your brothers are the dry-lipped ones. Reverence is identified in their faces.

O Ali, your brothers will be happy in three situations: when they go out of their graves while you and I will be their witnesses, when they encounter the tomb interrogation, and when they encounter the Presentation and the Path when the other people will not find answers as they will be asked about their faith.

O Ali, to fight you is to fight against me and to make peace with you is to make peace with me. To fight against me is to fight against Allah and to make peace with me is to make peace with Allah. He who makes peace with you is making peace with Allah.

O Ali, bear the good tidings to your brothers; Allah has been satisfied with them so long as He accepted you as their leader and they accepted you as their master.

O Ali, you are the commander of the faithful believers and the leader of the white-forheaded honorables.

O Ali, your Shia are the choice. Without you as well as your Shia, the religion of Allah would not have risen. If the earth is empty of you, the heavens will not cause its drops of rain to descend.

O Ali, you will have a treasure in Paradise. You are the two-horned of this nation. Your Shia are known as Hezbollah (the Party of Allah).

O Ali, your Shia and you are the administrators of justice and the best creatures of Allah.

O Ali, I will be the first one who shakes off the dust from the head and you will be with me. Then the other creatures will do.

O Ali, your Shia and you will be the guardians of the Divine Pool. You will water whomever you like and prevent whomever you dislike. You are the saved on the Day of the Grand Horror. You will be under the shadow of the Divine Throne. People will panic, but you will not panic. People will be sad, but you will not be sad. You are the only intendeds in Allah’s saying: “But those to whom We have already promised blessings will be far away from Hell. They will not even hear the slightest sound from it while enjoying the best that they can wish for in their everlasting life. They will not be affected by the great terror. The angels will come to them with this glad news: ‘This is your day which was promised to you.’ (21:101-3)”

O Ali, your Shia and you will ask in the Situation (of the Judgment) and you will bask in the gardens (of Paradise).

O Ali, the angels and the doorkeepers (of Paradise) long for meeting you. The bearers of the Divine Throne and the intimate angels pray for you exclusively, implore to Allah by their love for you, and become happy for the coming of anyone of you to them the same way as family members become happy for the return of the absent after a long period of being away.

O Ali, your Shia fear Allah secretly and advise people for His cause openly.

O Ali, your Shia compete with each other for gaining the ranks, because they will meet Allah without being burdened with any sin.

O Ali, the deeds of your Shia are presented before me every Friday. I become happy for their good deeds and implore to Allah to forgive their sins.

O Ali, in the Torah and the Gospel, your Shia and you are mentioned in a good reference. Ask the people of the Torah and the people of the Kitab to tell you about ‘Eli’; yet, you are well versed in the Torah and the Gospel. The scripturalists honor Eli, but they do not know his Shia. They know him as much as that which is recorded in their books.

O Ali, the good reference to your companions in the heavens is greater than it is on the earth. Thus, they should be happy for so and should be more diligent.

O Ali, the spirits of your Shia ascend to the heavens during their sleep. There, the angels, out of their longing for them and the ranks that Allah has decided for them, look at the spirits of the Shia in the same way as people look at the crescent.

O Ali, ask your companions who acknowledge you to be too great for committing the acts that their enemies commit. No single day and no single night pass without having the mercy of Allah overshadowed over them. Hence, they should avoid impurity.

O Ali, the wrath of Allah is intense on anyone who hates the Shia, disavows them and you, chooses anyone else other than them and you, inclines to your enemy, leaves your Shia and you, opts for deviation, wages war against your Shia and you, hates us—the Prophet’s family, and hates him who follows, supports, chooses, and offers his soul and wealth for your sake.

O Ali, send my greetings to them whom I will not see and they will not see me and tell them that they are my true brothers that I long for meeting. They should deliver my knowledge to the coming generations, hold fast and cling to the tie of Allah, and work diligently. We will not take them out of the right guidance and will not lead them to deviation.

O Ali, tell them that Allah is pleased with them, takes pride in them before the angels, looks at them every Friday with His mercy, and orders the angels to seek His forgiveness to them.

O Ali, do not turn away from supporting them who loved you because they had heard that I love you and took their love for you as a belief that takes them nearer to Allah, gave you their pure affection of their hearts, preferred you to their fathers, brothers, and sons, pursued your path, stood all the misfortunes for our sake, rejected everything for backing us, sacrificed their souls for us, and endured harm, insult, and bitterness for our sake. Therefore, be merciful to them and satisfy yourself with them, for Allah has chosen them for us out of His knowledge from among the creatures, created them from the same clay from which He created us, deposited with them our secret, bound their hearts to acknowledge our right, comforted their hearts, and made them cling to our tie. They never prefer the dissidents to us even if this takes the worldly pleasures away from them and causes the Shaitan to inflict them with misfortunes. As Allah supported and led them to the right way, they have held fast to Him while people are plunging in the floods of deviation and perplexed in the midst of passions. They could not see the right path and that which has come from Allah; therefore, they begin and end their day with the wrath of Allah. On the other side, your Shia are on the course of right and straightforwardness. They do not like the company of those who dissented them. The world is not their concern and they are not its concern.

These are surely the lanterns of gloom. These are surely the lanterns of gloom. These are surely the lanterns of gloom.

18. Allah honors the young Shiites and reverences their old men

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, related to us from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Ebbad bin Sulaiman from Mohammed bin Sulaiman that his father Sulaiman ad-Dailami (of Daylam) said:

I was with Abu Abdullah (a) when Abu Bassir, who was out of breath, came in. When he took his seat, Abu Abdullah (a) asked him:

“O Abu Mohammed, what for was your breathlessness?”

He answered: “May Allah make me your sacrifice, son of Allah’s Messenger. I grew old, my bones grew thin, and time of my death is about to fall. Still, I do not know what I will face in my life to come.”

Abu Abdullah (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, is it you who says such a thing?”

He answered: “May Allah make me your sacrifice, why should I not say it?”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, have you not known that Allah, Blessed and Exalted is He, honors the youth among you and reverences the old ones?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice, how does Allah honor the youth and reverence the old ones?”

The Imam (a) said: “Allah will not punish the youth out of His honoring them and will not settle an account with the old men out of His reverencing them.”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. Is this peculiarity granted (to us) exclusively or is it general for the community of Tawhid –believing in Allah’s oneness-?”

The Imam said: “No, by Allah. It is peculiar for you, not the general (Muslims).”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. We have been called with a name due to which our backs have been broken, our hearts have been dead, and the governors have deemed lawful to kill us—all for a narration that their scholars have related.”

The Imam (a) said: “You mean Rafidah, do you not?”

He answered: “Yes, I do.”

The Imam (a) said: “No, by Allah. It was not they who named you so. It was, in fact, Allah Who chose this name for you. O Abu Mohammed, have you not known that there were seventy men among the Israelites who rejected the Pharaoh and his people when their deviation had been proved to them? Accordingly, they joined Moses (a) when they knew his having been the right party. Because they rejected the Pharaoh, the party of Moses called them the Rafidah –the rejecters-. They were the best worshippers among the individuals of the party of Moses. Besides, they were the most affectionate of Moses, Aaron, and their descendants.

Then, Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, ordered Moses, by way of revelation, to record this name for those people in the Torah, for He has chosen it for them. Moses (a) did. Allah then saved this name so as to use it for you.

O Abu Mohammed, the others rejected the good and you have rejected the evil and held fast on the good.

As people went in various directions and separated into different sects, you went in with the household of your Prophet Mohammed (s). You thus opted for what Allah has opted, chosen what Allah has chosen, and wanted what Allah has wanted.

Enjoy the good tidings. Surely, enjoy the good tidings. You are, by Allah, the compassioned ones whose righteous deeds will be accepted and wrongdoings will be overlooked. For him whoever does not come to Allah, on the Day of Resurrection, with the same beliefs that you have, his good deeds will not be accepted and his wrongdoings will not be overlooked.

O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, there are definite angels of Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, whose mission is to unload the sins that our Shia carry on their backs in the same way as wind causes the leaves of trees to fall down in the season of fall. This is the meaning of Allah’s saying: ‘The angels glorify their Lord with His praise and seek forgiveness… (42:5)’ for the believers.

The angels, by Allah, seek forgiveness for you exclusively. O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘Among the believers, there are people who are true in their promise to Allah. Some of them have already passed away and some of them are waiting. They never yield to any change. (33:23)’ You have fulfilled the pledge under which Allah put you concerning the loyalty to us. You have not substituted anything for us. If you had not done it, Allah would have rebuked you in the same way as He rebuked the others. He, Glorified is His mention, says: ‘We did not find many among them keeping their promises. However, We did find many evil-doers among them. (7:102)’ O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘We shall remove all hatred from their breasts and make them as brothers reclining on thrones facing one another. (15:47)’ By Allah I swear, no one other than you is intended in this Verse.

O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘All intimate friends on that day will become each other’s enemies except for the pious. (43:67)’ By Allah, you are the ‘pious’ that are intended in this Verse. O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, in one the Verses of His Book, Allah refers to our enemies and us. He says: ‘Are those who know equal to those who do not know? Only the people of reason take heed? (39:9)’ We are ‘those who know’, our enemies are ‘those who do not know’, and our Shia are ‘the people of reason.’ O Abu Mohammed, have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”
The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has not excluded any one among the successors of the prophets and their followers except Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) and his Shia. Allah Whose word is the right says in His Book: ‘On this day, masters will be of no benefit to their followers, nor will they receive any help except for those to whom Allah grants mercy. (44:41-2)’ This means Ali and his Shia. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘Tell My servants who have committed injustice to themselves: Do not despair of the mercy of Allah. Allah certainly forgives all sins. He is All-forgiving and All-merciful. (39:53)’ This is, by Allah, an indication to you. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘And you –the Shaitan- have no authority over My servants. (15:42)’ By Allah I swear, except the Imams (a) and their Shia, no one is intended in the previous Verse. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, Allah has referred to you in His Book. He says: ‘(One who obeys Allah and the Messenger is) the friend of the prophets, saints, martyrs, and the righteous ones to whom Allah has granted His favors. They are the best friends that one can have. (4:69)’ The Prophet Mohammed (s) is one of the prophets, we –the Imams- are the saints and the martyrs, and you are the righteous ones. Hence, you should be true righteous so as to meet the quality that Allah has ascribed to you. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, as He tells about your enemies while they are in Hell, Allah refers to you. He says: ‘But why is it that we cannot see men whom we had considered as wicked and whom we mocked? Have they been rescued or can our eyes not find them? (38:62-3)’ By Him I swear, Allah has only referred to you, not anyone else. In the sight of the people of this world, you are regarded as the evilest ones. You, by Allah, will enjoy Paradise. You will be saved if you will be decided to be in Hell. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, every single Verse that refers to Paradise and mentions its people is only speaking of us as well as our Shia. Likewise, every single Verse that censures some people and leads to Hell is only referring to our enemies as well as those who disagree with us. Have I made you happy?”

He said: “May Allah make me your sacrifice. I seek more from you.”

The Imam (a) said: “O Abu Mohammed, no one is following the religion of Abraham (a) except us and our Shia. All the others are away from it. Have I made you happy, Abu Mohammed?”

19. The Shia will enter into Aqaba for their loyalty

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ebbad bin Sulaiman from Mohammed bin Sulaiman from his father from Eban bin Taghlib that he asked Abu Abdullah (a): “May Allah make me your sacrifice. What it the meaning of ‘Yet, he has not entered into Aqaba –obstacle-? (90:11)’” The Imam (a) answered:

Only he whom Allah grants favor through the loyalty to us will pass that Aqaba. We are that Aqaba. He who enters into that Aqaba will be saved.

The Imam kept silent for a while, then said: May I tell you about another piece of knowledge that is better for you than the world along with all that which is in it?

I said: “Yes, you may. Allah make me your sacrifice.”

He said: “It is the setting free of a slave. (90:13)” All people are the slaves of this world except your acquaintances and you. Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, will set you free from Hell because of your loyalty to us—the Prophet’s household.

20. The Shia are pale-faced because of the mention of Allah

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Sulaiman ad-Dailami related from Abu Bassir from Abu Abdullah (a) that Amir ul-Mu'minin (a) said:

I am the shepherd—the shepherd of people. Is it acceptable that a shepherd does not identify his sheep?
Juwairiya stood up and asked: O Amir ul-Mu'minin, who are your sheep?
He (a) answered: My sheep are pale-faced and dry-lipped because of the mention of Allah.

21. Allah created the believers from His light

(The same previous series of relaters) … from Sulaiman from Othman bin Aslam that Muawiya ad-Duhani said:

I asked Abu Abdullah (a): Allah may make me your sacrifice. What is the meaning of the saying that I have heard from you?

The Imam (a) asked: Which one?

I said: (Your saying) The believer sees through the light of Allah.

He said: O Muawiya, Allah created the believers from His light, made them in His mercy, and put them under the obligation of being loyal to us when He introduced Himself to them and they acknowledged Him. Hence, the believers are the brothers of each other. Their father is the light and their mother is the mercy. They thus see through that light from which they were created.

22. The Shia’s acknowledgement of the Immaculate Imams

(The same previous series of relaters)… from Sulaiman that Dawoud ar-Raqqi said:

When I was before Abu Abdullah (a) I said to him: Allah may make me your sacrifice. Regarding the Holy saying of Allah, “I am All-forgiving to him who repented, believed, and did righteous acts then followed the right guidance, (20:82)” what is that right guidance, which comes after repentance, faith, and the righteous acts?

He (a) said: (This right guidance is) the acknowledgement of the Imams—one after the other.

23. The Shiite worships Allah while standing or sitting

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him narrated from Sa’d bin Abdullah from Ebbad bin Sulaiman that Sadir as-Sayrafi said:

Abu Bassir, Maysara, and other individuals were with Abu Abdullah (a) when I visited him. As soon as I sat, he turned to me and said: O Sadir, our disciple worships Allah while he is standing, sitting, sleeping, alive, and dead.

I said: Allah may make me your sacrifice. We can understand how he worships Allah while he is standing, sitting, and alive. But how is it when he is asleep and dead?

He (a) said: When the time of the prayer comes while our disciple is asleep, two angels whom were created in the earth and had never ascended to the heavens or seen the kingdom there will offer prayers next to him so as to awaken him. Allah will record the reward of the prayers of these two angels for that disciple. A single rak’a that is offered by these angels is equal to one thousand prayers that are offered by people.

When Allah seizes the soul of our disciple, his two angels ascend to the heavens and say, ‘O our Lord, Your servant (so-and-so) has withdrawn from worship and taken in full his life. You, however, are more knowledgeable with this matter than we are. Allow us to worship you in the horizons of Your heavens and the extremes of Your lands.’

Allah, then, says to them -in a form of revelation-, ‘In My heavens, there are many who worship Me while I am not in need for their worship. In fact, it is they who are in need for worshipping Me. On My lands, likewise, there are many who worship me so properly; yet, I have not created anything that is needier for Me than they are. Hence, descend to the grave of my disciple.’

They will say, ‘O our Lord, who is that one who is enjoying Your love for him?’

Allah will answer them –in a form of revelation-, ‘That one is he who has put himself under the pledge of being loyal to Mohammed; My servant, his successor, and their descendants. Descend to the grave of My disciple (so-and-so) and offer prayers there until I resurrect him for the Day of Resurrection.’

The angels then descend to offer prayers at the grave until Allah resurrects him. Allah will record the reward of the prayers of these two angels for that disciple. A single rak’a that is offered by these angels is equal to one thousand prayers that are offered by people.

I said: Allah may make me your sacrifice, son of Allah’s Messenger. In his sleep and death, your disciple worships Allah in a way better than it is in his life and waking.
He (a) said: No, Sadir. This is too far (from the truth). On the Day of Resurrection, our disciple will seek security –for others, probably- from Allah and Allah will grant him (that security).”

24. The Angel of Death pities for the Shiite

(The same previous series of relaters) … Sadir said:
I asked Abu Abdullah (a): Allah may make me your sacrifice, son of Allah’s Messenger. Is the believer coerced to have his soul seized?

He (a) said: No, by Allah. When the angel of death attends for seizing his soul, the believer shows impatience. There, the angel of death says to him: “O disciple of Allah, do not be worry. I swear by Him Who sent Mohammed (a) with the truth, I am more compassionate and kinder to you than a merciful father to his son. Open your eyes and look.” In these moments, the believer will see the Messenger of Allah, Amir ul-Mu'minin, Fatima, al-Hasan, al-Hussein, and the Imams, peace be upon them all, in front of him. The angel will say to him: “Those are your companions.” Then, a caller from the direction of the Divine Throne will call at his soul: “O soul that is serene –to Mohammed and his household-, return to your Lord well pleased -with the loyalty to the Prophet’s household- and He will please you –by means of the reward-. Enter among My servants –who are Mohammed and his household- into My Paradise.” (89:27-30)

Then, nothing will be more preferable for that believer than the sneaking of his soul and joining the caller.

25. The Shia on the Day of Resurrection

My father, Allah have mercy upon him, narrated to me from Sa’d bin Abdullah… from Muawiya bin Ammar from Ja’far bin Mohammed from his father from his grandfather that the Prophet (s) said:
“On the Day of Resurrection, some people will come on stages of light with their faces glittering like the full moon. They will be envied by the past and the last generations.”

The Prophet (s) kept silent for a while then added the statement three times.
Omar bin al-Khattab asked: “My father and mother be sacrificed for you. Are they the martyrs?”
The Prophet (s) said: “They are martyrs, but not the martyrs that you know.”
Omar asked: “Are they the prophets?”

The Prophet (s) said: “They are prophets, but not the prophets that you know.”
Omar asked: “Are they the successors of the prophets?”
The Prophet (s) said: “They are successors of the prophets, but not the successors that you know.”
Omar asked: “Are they from the heavens or the earth?”
The Prophet (s) said: “They are from the earth?”

Omar said: “Tell me, who are they?”
The Prophet (s) pointed to Ali (a) and said: “They are this one and his Shia. No one from Koreish hates him except the bastard, no one of Ansar hates him except the Jew, no one from the Arabs hates him except the whoreson, and no one from the human beings hates him except the scoundrel.
O Omar, he who claims he loves me while he hates Ali is surely lying.

26. The prophets, angels, and martyrs will envy the Shia

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, related to me from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar… from Mohammed bin Qays and Aamir bin as-Simt from Abu Ja’far (a) that the Prophet (s) said:

On the Day of Resurrection, some people dressing clothes of light with luminous faces whom will be identified by the signs of prostration will come. They will overstep the rows until they stand in front of the Lord of the worlds. The prophets, angels, martyrs, and righteous people will envy them.
Omar bin al-Khattab asked: O Allah’s Messenger, who are they whom the prophets, angels, martyrs, and righteous men will envy?
The Prophet (s) answered: They will be our Shia, and Ali will be their imam.

27. When he comes out of the grave, the Shiite’s face is like full moon

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to me that Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar narrated to him from Mohammed bin al-Hussein from Abdullah bin Jibilla from Muawiya bin Ammar from Abu Abdullah (a) from his father from his grandfather that the Prophet (s) said to Ali (a):

O Ali, all the souls of my people, including the children and the old, were shown before me before the creation of their bodies. I passed by you and your Shia, and sought Allah’s forgiveness for you.
Ali said: O Allah’s Prophet, tell me more about them.

The Prophet (s) said: Yes, Ali. When your Shia and you will come out from your graves, your faces will be as bright as the full moon, your hardships will be alleviated, your griefs will be taken away from you, and you will be in the shadow of the Divine Throne. People will be fearful, but you will not, and will be sad, but you will not. A dining table will be installed for you while people will be called to the judgment.

28. The relief, contentment, and glad tidings are for the Shia of Ali

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, said that Ahmed bin Idris narrated to them that Ya’qoub bin Yazid narrated to them from Mohammed bin Abi Umair that Mohammed al-Qibtti said that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:

People disregarded the Prophet’s saying about Ali on that day in Ghadir Khumm and disregarded his saying on that day in the chamber of Ummu Ibrahim. The Prophet (s) felt pain in his leg and people came to visit him. Ali (a) as well, came to see him, but people did not give him an opportunity to see the Prophet (s) due to their crowds.

When the Prophet (s) noticed this thing, he said:
O people, these are my household. You are disregarding them while I am alive among you. By Allah I swear, if I am no longer present among you, Allah shall never be absent. It is certainly that relief, rest, content, and glad tidings will be for him who follows, abide by, and submit to Ali as well as the successors who will come after him. It is incumbent upon me to include such individuals with my (right of) intercession, because they are my followers. “He who follows me will belong to me.” I repeat this statement of Abraham because I belong to Abraham and Abraham belongs to me. My religion is the same as Abraham’s, my Sunna is the same as Abraham’s, and Abraham’s virtue is the same as mine. I, however, am preferable to him. This preference comes to support the saying of my Lord: “They were the offspring of one another. Allah is All-hearing and All-seeing. (3:34)”

29. The love for the Prophet’s household is good deed

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, said that Sa’d bin Abdullah narrated to them… from Abu Dawoud al-Aama (the blind) that Abu Abdullah al-Jadali said that Ali (a) said to him:
O Abu Abdullah, may I tell you about the good deed whose doer will be saved from the terror of the Day of Resurrection?
I said: Yes, you may.
He (a) said: This good deed is the love for us. The evil deed is to hate us.

30. The Imams love their Shia

(The same previous series of relaters) …from al-Hasan bin Ali from Aassim bin Hamid that Abu Ishaq an-Nahawi (the grammarian) said that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:

Allah educated His Prophet (s) as He liked for him. He says: “You have attained a high moral standard (68:4).” Allah then authorized him to represent Him. He says: “Take only what the Messenger gives to you and desist from what he forbids you (59:7).” “One who obeys the Messenger has certainly obeyed Allah (4:80).” In the same manner, the Prophet (s) authorized Ali (a) to represent him and deposited with him (all the religious affairs). You submitted (to this authority) while the others denied. By Allah I swear, we do love you to say when we say and keep silent when we keep silent. We are the mediators between Allah and you. Allah has never made any goodness lie in the contradiction to His commandments.

31. The sins of the believers are forgiven

(The same previous series of relaters)… from al-Hasan in Mahboub from al-Alaa from Mohammed bin Muslim that Abu Ja’far (a) said:

The sins of the believers are already forgiven. Hence, a believer should put a new start. This is surely granted for the people of faith exclusively.

32. Allah will grant the believer whatever he asks

(The same previous series of relaters)… that Abu Ja’far (a) said:
Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, gives (the pleasures of) this world to anyone, whether He likes or dislikes, while He gives the world to come only to those whom He likes. It happens that Allah does not answer the believer who asks for a location that is as small as a place of a lash, and gives the world to the disbeliever before he asks for anything. But, if that disbeliever asks Allah for a location that is as small as a place of a lash in the world to come, Allah will not answer him.

33. The Shia are for Paradise and Paradise is theirs

(The same previous series of relaters)… from al-Hasan bin Ali bin Faddhal from Mohammed bin al-Fadhl from Abu Hamza that he heard Abu Abdullah (a) saying:
You are for Paradise and Paradise is yours. To us, you are called the virtuous and the reformers. You are the people of the contentment with Allah, for He is pleased with you. The angels are your brothers in virtue if they work diligently.

34. The Shia’s houses and graves are paradises

(The same previous series of relaters)… that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
Your houses are your paradises. Your graves are your paradises. You were created for Paradise and you will be in Paradise.

35. The women of paradise look at the believer in prayers

(The same previous series of relaters)… that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
When a believer stands up for offering a prayer, Allah allows the women of Paradise to look at him. If he finishes his prayer without asking Allah to give him women of Paradise in marriage, they go back with astonishment.

36. The highest ranks of Paradise are the Shia’s

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin Ahmed bin al-Waleed narrated to me from Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar from Mohammed bin al-Hussein bin Abi al-Khattab from al-Hasan bin Ali bin an-Nu’man from al-Harith bin Mohammed al-Ahwal from Abu Abdullah (a) that he heard his father Abu Ja’far (a) saying:
After the Night Ascension, the Prophet (s) related to Ali (a): O Ali, in Paradise, I saw a river that was whiter than milk, sweeter than honey, and straighter than arrow. There were pitchers as many as the stars in it. On its shore, there stand the domes of ruby and white pearls. As Gabriel stroke the bank of that river with his wing, it was pure musk.

(He then added) I swear by Him Who prevails Mohammed’s soul, there are trees in Paradise clapping with the praise (of Allah) and making sounds that no one among the early and the late generations has ever heard like them. They bear fruits like pomegranates. The one on whom such fruits are thrown cuts it into ninety garments. There, the believer will be sitting on chairs of light. They are the white-forheaded honorables. On the Day of Resurrection, you will be their leader. Each one of them will put slippers whose laces are luminous to cast light upon the way he wants to take in Paradise. Meanwhile, a woman will look down upon him and say, ‘All Glory be to Allah. O Allah’s servant, do you not have anything with me?’ He will ask her who she is. She will answer, ‘I am one of those about whom Allah said: So, no soul knows what is hidden for them of that which will refresh the eyes; a reward for what they did.’

(The Prophet (s) then added) I swear by Him Who prevails Mohammed’s soul, seventy thousand angels will visit that believer every day in Paradise and will call him by his name and his father’s.

37. The dead Shiite is as the martyr

Mohammed bin Musa bin al-Mutawakkil narrated to me… from Malik al-Juhani that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
O Malik, do you not accept to offer the (obligatory) prayers, defray the zakat, and stop your aggressions so as to be in Paradise? (He then added)
O Malik, as for any people who follow a leader in this world, that leader will curse them and they will curse him on the Day of Resurrection. Only your likes and you are excluded from this rule. (He then added)

O Malik, anyone of you who dies while he keeps up these beliefs will enjoy the same rank of the martyrs whose swords are engaged in fighting for the sake of Allah.
(Malik said) One day, I was sitting before him –i.e. Imam Abu Abdullah as-Sadiq (a) - and talking to myself about some of the Imams’ credits. He (a) said to me:
You are, by Allah, our Shia. Do not think that you are negligent in regard with our rights.
O Malik, no one can describe Allah exactly. In the same manner, no one can describe the Messenger (s) exactly, no one can describe us exactly, and no one can describe the believer exactly.
O Malik, as the believer shakes hands with his brother when they meet, Allah looks at them making their sins fall out until they leave. It is impossible to describe the bearers of such qualities.
My father (a) used to say: The fire (of Hell) will not consume him who describes this matter.

38. For the Shia, their deeds are accepted and sins are forgiven

Mohammed bin Ali bin Majilwayh narrated to me from his uncle Mohammed bin al-Qasim… from Omar bin Eban al-Kelbi that Abu Abdullah (a) said to him:
How numerous the human beings are!
I said: Yes, son of Allah’s Messenger. How numerous the human beings are!
He said: By Allah I swear, no one performs the hajj for the sake of Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, except you, no one offers the two prayers except you, and no one will be rewarded two-fold except you. You are certainly the guardians of the sun, the moon, and the stars. Your sins will be forgiven and your deeds will be accepted.

39. The Shiite and the haters

Ja’far bin Mohammed bin Masrour, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us that al-Hussein bin Aamir narrated to him from his uncle Abdullah bin Aamir from al-Hasan bin Ali bin Faddhal from Thaalaba bin Omar from Omar bin Eban ar-Rifaee from as-Sabah bin Sayyaba that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
It happens that a man loves you –the Shia- but he does not know what you say. Accordingly, Allah will allow him to enter Paradise. It also happens that a man hates you but he does not know what you say. Accordingly, Allah will send him to Hell. Hence, a man may fill in his record with good deeds without being doing any of them.(I asked how, and the Imam answered)

This occurs when he passes by some people while they are reviling at us. As they see him, some of them tell that he is one of the Shia. They then go on railing and reviling at him. Hence, Allah records for him good deeds because of so until his record of good deeds is filled.

40. The Shia eat and dress the legal

My father, Allah may have mercy upon him, said that Sa’d bin Abdullah narrated to him… that Mansour as-Sayqal said:
I was with Abu Abdullah (a) in his pavilion in Mina (during the season of the hajj) when he looked at people and said:
They eat, dress, and marry illegally. But you eat, dress, and marry legally. By Allah, it is only you whose hajj is valid and whose deeds are accepted.

41. The Shia are following the religion of Mohammed and his forefathers

(The same previous series of relaters)… from al-Hasan bin Ali from Aassim bin Hamid from Omar bin Hanzhala that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
O Omar, Allah surely grants the pleasures of this world to everyone whether He likes or dislikes, but He does not grant this matter except for His choice. You, by Allah, are following my religion as well as the religion of my forefathers Abraham and Ishmael, not Ali bin al-Hussein or al-Baqir (a) although these are following the religion of those.

42. The Shia are added to those whom they like

(The same previous series of relaters)… from al-Hasan bin Ali from Ali bin Aqaba from Musa an-Numayri that Abu Abdullah (a) said:
A man came to the Prophet (s) and said: O Allah’s Messenger, I do like you.
He (s) asked: Do you really like me?
The man said: By Allah I swear, I love you.
The Prophet (s) said: You will be with whomever you like.

43. The Shiite will not see Hell

Mohammed bin Ali bin Majilwayh, Allah may have mercy upon him, said to us that Mohammed bin Yahya narrated to him… from Hanzhala that Maisar said that Abu al-Hasan ar-Ridha said:
No two of you will be seen in Hell. Furthermore, no single one of you will be seen in Hell.
I said: How can this be proved through the Book of Allah?
The Imam did not answer me for a whole year.
On the Circumambulating day of the next year, he said to me: O Maisar, only today I am permitted to answer your last question.

I said: Well, how can it be proved through the Book of Allah?
He (a) said: This is in sura of Arrahman. It is: “On that day, no mankind –among you- or jinn will be asked about his sin (55:39).”
I said: This Verse does not include ‘among you’ that you have said.
He (a) answered: The first one who distorted the Verse was son of Arwa, because it was evidence against his acquaintances and him. Without the existence of ‘among you’ in the Verse, the sentence of the punishment of Allah, Powerful and Majestic is He, will cease to be valid for all the creatures. If Allah will not ask any man or jinn about his sin, whom will he punish on the Day of Resurrection, then?

44. The honoring of the Shia in Paradise

Mohammed bin al-Hasan bin al-Waleed, Allah may have mercy upon him, narrated to us that Mohammed bin al-Hasan as-Saffar related to him … that al-Abbas bin Yazid said:
One day, I said to Abu Abdullah (a): Allah may make me your sacrifice. What is the meaning of: “If you were to see it, you would 

The Geographical Expansion of Shi‘ism

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

It is certain that the first center of Shi‘ism had been the city of Medina and the pioneering Shi‘ah among the companions {sahabah} of the Prophet (S) lived in that city. During the reign of the first three caliphs, the Shi‘ah sahabah were scattered in the different cities and regions, with some of them holding political and military positions.

In this regard, ‘Allamah Muhammad Jawad Mughniyyah writes: The Shi‘ah sahabah played a pivotal role in the propagation and spread of Shi‘ism. Wherever they went, they were calling on the people toward Shi‘ism within the framework of the Qur’an and the Sunnah and through patience and fortitude, and on account of their companionship with the Prophet (S), they were held in high esteem and regard by the people, and their speech had tremendous impact.[27][428]

Even the place like Jabal ‘Amil (in present day Lebanon) which was part of Sham, Mu‘awiyah’s sphere of influence, would become one of the most important centers of Shi‘ism by the grace of the presence of the great companion of the Prophet (S), Abu Dharr (al-Ghiffari).[28][429]

During the latter part of the caliphate of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, many Shi‘ah were living in the Muslim territories such that the name of ‘Ali (‘a) was always mentioned for caliphate. For this reason, ‘Uthman used to send requests to ‘Ali (‘a) during rebel gatherings in Madina, asking him to stay out of Medina for sometime and to go to his farm in Yanbu‘ with the hope that the rebels would be motivated less.[29][430]

There were many Shi‘ah in Iraq especially during the time of ‘Uthman. For example, when the Shi‘ah of Basrah—in spite of the fact that the city was under the occupation and influenced by the Jamal {camel} Army propaganda—heard the news that the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a) along with Muhajirun and Ansar was heading toward them, three thousand men only from the tribe of Rabi‘ah joined the Imam in Dhiqar.[30][431] Their decision to join ‘Ali (‘a) was ideologically motivated, regarding the Imam as the caliph appointed by the Prophet (S) just as Baladhuri has this to say: “Among the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali were those from the tribe of Rabi‘ah.”[31][432]

After ‘Ali (‘a) himself took control of the helm of government and went to Iraq, there was an extraordinary impact upon the spread of Shi‘ism in the region. Similarly, the rulers and governors of the Imam, most of whom were appointed from among the Shi‘ah, had remarkable contribution in the spread of Shi‘ism in other places. As Sayyid Muhsin Amin says, “Wherever the trustees of ‘Ali (‘a) went, the people there would become Shi‘ah.”[32][433]

Of course, during that period, in addition to Sham which was totally under the influence of the Umayyads, other regions, such as Basrah and north of Iraq, also had inclinations toward ‘Uthman. The people in those places were inclined toward ‘Uthman[33][434] on account of the settlement of ‘Uthman’s relatives there, and this inclination in the north of Iraq continued till the end of the second century AH.

Mecca also had anti-Hashimi and anti-‘Alawi tendencies since the Age of Ignorance {yamw al-jahiliyyah}. Similarly, both during the Age of Ignorance and the Islamic period, Ta’if was the same as Mecca. The other tribes of Quraysh were always competing with Banu Hashim and not willing to accept the leadership of Banu Hashim, and this is one of the reasons for Quraysh’s opposition to the Holy Prophet (S). The people of Ta’if, too, like that of Mecca, rejected the Prophet’s (S) invitation although they submitted after Islam’s acquisition of power.

From the time of Hajjaj, Shi‘ism was extended beyond the realm of Iraq and Hijaz. During that period, as a result of the extreme pressure and harshness of Hajjaj, Shi‘ah went out of Iraq and settled in other Muslim territories. Especially in the eastern part of the Muslim lands at the end of the first century AH, the Shi‘ah centers in Iran were gradually formed. In Khurasan, the ‘Abbasids took advantage of the people’s love for the descendants of the Prophet (S) and through the slogan, “the appointed one from among the progeny of Prophet Muhammad (S),” they gathered the people around themselves and utilized them in the struggle against the Umayyads.

The scattering of the Shi‘ah during the ‘Abbasid period was very obvious. In the east, in addition to Iran, the Shi‘ah went to Central Asia, India and the Caucasus, among others, and with the collapse of the Umayyad dynasty, the Shi‘ah were also able to exert influence in the west, especially in Africa where a Shi‘ah government of the Idrisis was established during the second century AH. Although their government was a Zaydi one, it can be regarded as a ground for the efforts of the Shi‘ah. Of course, their contact with the capital (Baghdad) and Medina had been less due to the existence of the Aghlabi government in Egypt which was formed to counter them.[34][435]

In this manner, Shi‘ism during the second century AH was spread in both the eastern and western parts of the Muslim world, and in addition to Khuzestan, the mountainous region {jabal} (the regions around the Zagros mountain ranges) and central Iran, Shi‘ism was also spread in far-flung regions such as Central Asia, present day Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Maghrib (Morocco), India, and Tabaristan.[35][436]

Summary

The first center of Shi‘ism is Medina and the pioneering Shi‘ah used to live in this city. During the period of the first three caliphs, the Shi‘ah sahabah (companions of the Prophet (S)) was scattered in the different cities and regions and calling people toward Shi‘ism on the basis of the Qur’an. The transfer of ‘Ali (‘a) to Iraq had a tremendous impact on Shi‘ism in Iraq.

From the time of Hajjaj, Shi‘ism was extended beyond the realm of Iraq and Hijaz. During the ‘Abbasid period, the Shi‘ah in the east, in addition to Iran, also found their way into Central Asia, India, and the Caucasus, and in the west also, with the establishment of the Idrisi government in Maghrib, a fertile ground was paved for the influence of Shi‘ism.

The Shi‘ah-populated regions during the first century AH were confined to Hijaz and Iraq. Owing to the residence of the pure Imams (‘a) and Banu Hashim there, Medina was the first city where the Shi‘ah gathered together.

The second Shi‘ah-concentrated region next to Medina was Yemen because the people embraced Islam through ‘Ali’s (‘a) hand.

The Sincere Shia

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Shaykh Nasir Makarim Shirazi

Imam Ja’far b. Muhammad as-Sadiq (as) has said: “Surely our Shi’a (true followers) are those who follow our virtues (those who follow all of the good and noble practices which we have established and left behind - our Sunnah) and who obey us in all of the things which we command towards and which we prohibit - surely these people are our Shi’a. However, as for those who go against us in most of the things which Allah has made obligatory upon him, they are not our Shi’a.”[90]

The word “أثار” mentioned in this tradition refers to the customs that remain even after a person has left this world. Sometimes these are good customs and practices while other times, they are corrupt and immoral practices.

In this tradition, the Imam has said that, “Our Shi’a not only uphold and protect the obligatory and refrain from the prohibited, rather, they also protect the (good) customs and practices.”

One of the established customs of the A`immah (as) is that they used to help people in need through direct means. Historical narrations mention that in the middle of the night, they would go to a needy person's house and give them whatever they needed.

Another custom of the A`immah (as) was the humility which they displayed.

Yet another of their habits was that when they came face to face with the anger and rage of another person, they restrained themselves and would repel evil with goodness - not with evil!

Therefore, according to the directives given in the tradition under review, the person who keeps their traditions (Sunnah) alive, acts according to all of the permissible things and refrains from the impermissible, are the true Shi’a of the A`immah!

We should note that in this tradition, the Imam has used the term, 'all of the commandments and prohibitions'. Therefore, if a person was to go against even one of their commandments or perform even one prohibited act, he would no longer be classified as a Shi’a!

However at the end of the tradition, the Imam has said that if a person does not follow a great number of their commandments, then and only then is he classified as not being from amongst their Shi’a. Is there some discrepancy between the beginning and end of this tradition?

In our opinion, the meaning of “not following some of our commandments” is the same as “not following all of our commandments” and is similar to the phrase used in the Qur’an which states:

وَ يَشْـتَرُونَ بِهِ ثَــمَناً قَلِيلاً
“And then they sell it (the communications of Allah) for a miserable and low price…”

This sort of phrase has been repeated in the Qur’an in many times. However, does this verse mean that if a person was to take a large amount of money as a bribe for the act of alteration and distortion of the verses of the Tawrat, then this would be permissible - thus relegating the meaning of this verse to be that it is no permissible to take a small amount of money? The answer is that obviously, a “large amount” is equal to a “small amount” and that even if a person was to give the entire transient world in exchange for the distortion of the verses of Allah (SwT), that would still be a little amount!

Therefore, sometimes we see that 'a little' is actually 'a lot'.

With this said, in the tradition under discussion and as it has been mentioned by the infalliable A`immah (as), even one ounce or an atom's weight of opposition to their teachings is too much! If the meaning of this tradition was anything other than this, then we could definitely say that there is a disparity between the beginning and end of the tradition.

Therefore the correct meaning of the tradition is that if a person goes against the dictates of the A`immah (as) in even a small amount, it is the same as going against many of their commandments and thus, such a person would cease to be a Shi’a.

The tradition goes on to speak about a very frightful and moving event that was previously mentioned in two other traditions. In those other discussions we mentioned that once, a person was plagued with difficulties and was in need of help and thus, introduced himself (to the Imam) as a Shi’a of the Ahlu'l Bayt.

Another person asked the Imam if that person was truly a Shi’a and follower of the Ahlu'l Bayt to which the Imam replied that he was not a Shi’a! Some time later, the person was relieved from his difficulties and asked the Imam why he said that he was not a Shi’a?

The Imam replied, “I did so since in this issue which you were engulfed in, you were not under a great deal of pressure and now that you are freed from your difficulties you should know that you are our lover, you are not our Shi’a - thus, this statement of yours is nothing more than a false claim. Therefore, you must say that you are a lover of the Ahlu'l Bayt.”

However, we should not become discouraged from these sorts of traditions. Rather, they should instil a feeling of hope within us and we should realize that being a Shi’a is something extremely difficult! It is easy to love someone, however it is difficult to be a follower (Shi’a) of that person.

We are merely at the beginning of the journey of becoming true Shi’a, and therefore, we must seek assistance to complete this journey so that we can truly become and be counted as the Shi’a.

The tradition under review also shows us that if the claim of being a follower (Shi’a) is made, however there are no characteristics of being a Shi’a present within the person, then not only is this a false and void claim, rather, it also has retributions associated with it (as we mentioned in our previous two discussions).

We pray that through the divine blessings of the A`immah (as), we are able to stay on the path of being the true Shi’a!

Notes:
[90] Ibid., vol. 65, pg. 162

The Rifts within Shi‘ism

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

There were major rifts within Shi‘ism during the first and second centuries AH, and at the end of the second century remarkable splits among the Shi‘ah had emerged. As such, members of the different nations and religions, in dealing with Waqifiyyah, have called the Shi‘ah Imamiyyah who believed in the Imamate of Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) as Qat‘iyyah and Ithna ‘Ashariyyah for believing in Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) and the Imams after him up to the Imam of the Time (‘a).[1][538]

Of course, during the first century AH up to 61 AH (i.e. up to the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a)) these splits had not occurred within Shi‘ism, although Shahristani regards the Ghulat Saba’iyyah sect that emerged during the time of Hadhrat Amir (‘a) as Shi‘ah.[2][539]

This is while there is doubt concerning the existence of a person named ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’.[3][540] At any rate, according to Rijal Kashi, there had been some Ghalis during the time of ‘Ali (‘a) who were asked by him to repent, and since they had not repented, he ordered for their execution.[4][541]

Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (‘a) had excellent positions in the sight of Muslims and have been considered as progeny of the Prophet (S). Apart from the Shi‘ah, other Muslims also regard them worthy of the caliphate. As such, there was no doubt concerning the matter of the Imamate and no rift whatsoever had ever occurred during the lifetime of these two personages. After Imam al-Husayn’s (‘a) martyrdom, we witness rifts within Shi‘ism, and some of those sects that split from mainstream Shi‘ism are the following:

o Kaysaniyyah: They believe in the Imamate of Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah.

o Zaydiyyah: They believe in the Imamate of Zayd ibn ‘Ali.

o Nawusiyyah: They believe in the occultation {ghaybah} of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) and in his being the Mahdi.

o Fathiyyah: They believe in the Imamate of ‘Abd Allah ibn Aftah, son of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).

o Samtiyyah: They believe in the Imamate of Muhammad Dibaj, another son of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).

o Isma‘iliyyah: They believe in the Imamate of Isma‘il, yet another son of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).

o Tafiyyah: They believe that Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) entrusted the Imamate to Musa ibn Taffi.

o Aqmasiyyah: They believe that Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) entrusted the Imamate to Musa ibn ‘Umran al-Aqmas.

o Yarma‘iyyah: They believe that Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) entrusted the Imamate to Yarma‘ ibn Musa.

o Tamimiyyah: They believe that Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) entrusted the Imamate to ‘Abd Allah ibn Sa‘d at-Tamimi.

o Ju‘diyyah: They believe that Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) entrusted the Imamate to a person named Abu Ju‘dah.

o Ya‘qubiyyah: They reject the Imamate of Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a), saying that Imamate could be entrusted to other than the sons of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a), and their leading figure is a person named Abu Ya‘qub.

o Mamturah: They suspend their judgment concerning Imam al-Kazim (‘a), saying that they are not sure if the Imam really passed away or not.[5][542]

o Waqifiyyah: They believe that Imam al-Kazim (‘a) did not die and that he shall remain alive till the Day of Resurrection (‘a).[6][543]

Of course, some of these sects had also split into smaller sects. For example, Kaysaniyyah has two groups regarding the Imamate of Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah: Some believed that Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah was the Imam after Imam al-Husayn (‘a) while another group was of the opinion that he was supposed to be the Imam after his father, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘a), and after ascribing the Imamate to pass to his son, Abu Hashim after him, they were again divided into some groups: A group believed that Abu Hashim had entrusted the Imamate to Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-‘Abbasi. The second group maintained that Abu Hashim had entrusted the Imamate to his brother, ‘Ali ibn Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah. The third group opined that Abu Hashim had entrusted the Imamate to his nephew, Hasan ibn ‘Ali. The fourth group held that Abu Hashim had entrusted the Imamate to ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Amru al-Kindi.[7][544]

Zaydiyyah is also divided into three main groups: Jarudiyyah:[8][545] They believe that after the Holy Prophet (‘a), ‘Ali (‘a) was the one worthy of the caliphate but the Prophet (‘a) introduced him to the people for the caliphate only by descriptions and not by name, and that due to the people’s failure to recognize him correctly, they chose Abu Bakr and for doing so, the people became infidels {kuffar}.

Sulaymaniyyah:[9][546] They believe that Imamate is determined through consultation {shura} and that the Imamate of ‘a deserving one’ {mafdhul} while ‘the most deserving one’ {afdhal} is present is permissible. It is by means of this notion that they are proving the legitimacy of the caliphate of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar and that the ummah erred in not choosing ‘the most deserving one’ (viz., ‘Ali (‘a)) but their error does not reach the level of transgression {fisq}. Also, they declare ‘Uthman as an infidel {kafir}.
Batriyyah:[10][547] Their beliefs are similar to that of Sulaymaniyyah with the only difference that they suspend their judgment concerning ‘Uthman.[11][548]

Isma‘iliyyah is also divided into three groups: One group is of the opinion that the Imam after Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) is Isma‘il who did not die as he is alive and the promised Mahdi.

The second group believes that Isma‘il died and the Imamate transferred to his son, Muhammad, who is in occultation {ghaybah} and shall appear and fill the world with justice and equity.

The third group, like the second one, believes in the Imamate of Muhammad ibn Isma‘il with the only difference that Muhammad died and the Imamate has remained in his offspring.[12][549]

Of course, most of these sects did not last long, and they could hardly be called “sects”. Rather, they were groups that faded away with the death of their respective leaders, and they had no appearance in the sociopolitical scenes. Among these sects, Kaysaniyyah, Zaydiyyah and Isma‘iliyyah emerged and remained in the first, second and third centuries AH. Of course, although during the second century AH and after the martyrdom of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) the Isma‘ili sect was separated from the body of Shi‘ism, it had no appearance up to the middle of the third century AH, and in a sense, their Imams were in hiding.[13][550]

During the first century AH, next to the Shi‘ah Imamiyyah and prior to the emergence of Zaydiyyah, Kaysaniyyah had been the most influential Shi‘ah sect. Kaysaniyyah emerged and made its appearance in the uprising of Mukhtar. Although we do not regard Mukhtar himself as a Kaysani, many of his forces were adhering to Kaysaniyyah.[14][551]

This sect struggled politically until the end of the first century AH, and Abu Hashim, ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah, who was the leader of this sect, had for the first time used the terms “da‘i” {propagator} and “hujjat” {proof} for his preachers. Later on, these terms were used by other groups such as the ‘Abbasids, Zaydis and Isma‘ilis. He was also the one who founded the “office of propagation” which was later imitated by the ‘Abbasids.[15][552]

When the Umayyad caliph Sulayman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik felt threatened by Abu Hashim, he invited him to Sham and poisoned him. When Abu Hashim realized that that was his end, he went to Hamimah, the living place of his ‘Abbasid cousins, declared Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-‘Abbasi as his successor, and introduced to his successor his preachers and forces.[16][553] From then on, the Banu ‘Abbas assumed the leadership of the followers of Kaysaniyyah and focused their activities in Khurasan. As Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani says, The people of Khurasan believed that Abu Hashim was the successor of his father and that his father inherited the right of succession {wasayah} from his father (viz., ‘Ali (‘a)). He in turn appointed Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-‘Abbasi as his successor and who, in turn, designated his own son, Ibrahim, as the Imam. In this manner, they were proving the right of succession of Banu ‘Abbas.[17][554]

Even Shahristani believes that Abu Muslim al-Khurasani had been a Kaysani at the beginning but after the triumph of the ‘Abbasids, they established their legitimacy based on the alleged right of succession of their forefather, ‘Abbas, from the Messenger of Allah (S) himself.

In retrospect, the sociopolitical appearance of the Kaysanis can be found in the uprising of ‘Abd Allah ibn Mu‘awiyah, a descendant of Ja‘far ibn Abi Talib at-Tayyar. As Shahristani says, A number of the Kaysanis believed in the right of succession of ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Amru al-Kindi and when they found him committing treachery and making lies, they believed in the Imamate of ‘Abd Allah ibn Mu‘awiyah ibn ‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far at-Tayyar… There was a serious difference over the issue of Imamate between the companions of ‘Abd Allah ibn Mu‘awiyah and the companions and followers of Muhammad ibn ‘Ali.[18][555]

Besides the Kaysaniyyah, the second sect that was active in the sociopolitical scene, was the Zaydiyyah, which emerged after the uprising of Zayd and the most politicized Shi‘ah sect. Of all the Shi‘ah sects, it is the closest to the principles of Ahl as-Sunnah. For example, in addition to acknowledging the caliphate of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman, Batriyyah Zaydiyyah was not also considering Talhah, Zubayr and ‘A’ishah as infidels.[19][556]

For this reason, many of the Sunni jurists {fuqaha} used to approve the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah who was a Zaydi.[20][557] Mas‘ar ibn Kudam, a leading Murjite {murja’ah} figure, had written to Ibrahim, brother of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah, to come to Kufah.[21][558] Abu Hanifah, the Imam of the Hanifi school of thought {madhhab} participated in Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah’s uprising, encouraging the people to support the leader of the uprising.[22][559]

Regarding the Zaydiyyah Batriyyah sect, Sa‘d ibn ‘Abd Allah Ash‘ari al-Qummi thus says, “They mix together the guardianship {wilayah} of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar.”[23][560] In particular, regarding the roots of religion {usul ad-din}, they follow Mu‘tazilism {mu‘tazilah} and concerning the branches of religion {furu‘ ad-din}, they follow Abu Hanifah while some follow Shafi‘i.[24][561]

The Zaydi school of thought, that is Shi‘ism in a general sense, does not differ much from the Sunni beliefs. It is for this reason that in some Zaydi uprisings, such as that of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah and his brother Ibrahim, a number of the Sunni ‘ulama’ and prominent figures had participated. Similarly, the Shi‘ah who had participated in the Zaydi uprisings were probably of the opinion that the ‘Alawi leaders of the uprisings were designated by the infallible Imams and perhaps the scattering of Shi‘ah and their being away from the Imam of the time were the reasons behind it. In the end, only the Zaydis had remained with their leaders. For example, as narrated by Mas‘udi, Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd Allah, Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah’s brother, had fought in the end with only four hundred Zaydis on his side who were all killed.[25][562]

The third sect which had presence and been active in the sociopolitical scenes is the Isma‘ili sect. This sect separated from the body of Shi‘ism during the second half of the second century AH. Yet, until the end of the third century AH, they did not have much public appearance and their leaders remained in hiding until 296 AH, i.e. the year of appearance of ‘Abd Allah al-Mahdi, the first Fatimid caliph in North Africa. For this reason, the evolutionary phases of this sect remained completely unknown. Nawbakhti who lived during the third century AH used to link their initial activities with the Ghulat and followers of Abi’l-Khattab.[26][563]

Their beliefs have also remained in the halo of ambiguity. In this regard, Mas‘udi thus writes: The scholastic theologians {mutakallimun} of the various sects—Shi‘ah, Mu‘tazilah, Murja’ah, and Khawarij—have written about the sect and reputation of the objections against it… But none of them has expressed opposition against the doctrines of the Qaramatah (Isma‘ili) sect. There are also those who have written against them such as Qudamah ibn Yazid an-Nu‘mani, Ibn ‘Abdak al-Jurjani, Abi’l-Hasan Zakariyya al-Jurjani, Abi ‘Abd Allah Muhammad ibn ‘Ali ibn ar-Razzaq at-Ta’i al-Kufi, and Abu Ja‘far al-Kalabi. Each of them had described the creeds of the people of falsehood. Yet, others have not discussed those matters. Besides, the followers of this sect disregarded the claims of these writers, not confirming them.[27][564]

This is the reason why the followers of this sect have been referred to by diverse names in the different regions. In this regard, Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk has thus written: They had been called by different names in every city and every province; “Isma‘ili” in Halab and Egypt; “Saba‘i” in Qum, Kashan, Tabaristan, and Sabzewar; “Qarmati” in Baghdad and Mesopotamia; “Khalafi” in Rey; and in Isfahan…[28][565]

Prior to the establishment of the Fatimid state, the Isma‘ilis were less engaged in political struggles, and instead focused on drawing people’s attention toward them, propagation, training and education. As such, we are witnesses to the travel of the Isma‘ili leaders, such as Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, Ahmad ibn ‘Abd Allah, and Husayn ibn Ahmad, to the regions such as Rey, Nahavand, Damavand, Syria, Jabal Qandahar, Nayshabur, Daylam, Yemen, Hamedan, Istanbul, and Azerbaijan where they dispatched their preachers and propagators.[29][566]

It was by considering these grounds that the Qarmatis {qarmatiyan} designated “Isma‘iliyyah” for themselves. Given such an expansion, they used to try their best for the ‘Abbasid not to be able to extinguish the fire of their sedition.[30][567]

In 296 AH the Fatimid state, based on the Isma‘ili sect, was established in North Africa and a vast part of the Muslim territories was detached from the ‘Abbasid sphere of influence.

Summary

The most prominent Shi‘ah sects emerged during the first and second centuries AH, and notable rifts within Shi‘ism had occurred after the end of the second century AH. As such, in contrast to Waqifiyyah, the Shi‘ah Imami who believed in the Imamate of Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) were called Qati‘ah and Ithna ‘Ashariyyah.

No rift within Shi‘ism occurred during the time of Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (‘a) on account of their towering station.

Most sects mentioned in the books about nations and religions could hardly be called “sects”. Rather, they were groups that eventually faded away with the death of their respective leaders and founders.
But the sects that have appeared in the sociopolitical scenes are the Kaysaniyyah, Zaydiyyah and Isma‘iliyyah.

The Shi‘ah-Populated Places during the Second Century Hijri

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

At the beginning of the second century AH, Shi‘ism extended beyond the frontiers of the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq as it encompassed the entire Muslim domain. In view of the scattering of the Shi‘ah and ‘Alawis in the Muslim territories, this matter can be discerned. From the time of Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the migration of the Shi‘ah and ‘Alawis to the other regions had begun.

These migrations were further expedited during the second century AH with the beginning of the propaganda and movements by the ‘Alawis. After the failure of the uprising of Zayd in Kufah, his son Yahya along with a number of his supporters went to Khurasan.[96][497] After him, the uprising of ‘Abd Allah ibn Mu‘awiyah, a descendant of Ja‘far ibn Abi Talib at-Tayyar, covered the regions such as Hamedan, Qum, Rey, Qirmis, Isfahan, and Fars, and ‘Abd Allah himself lived in Isfahan.

Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani says, “The notables of Banu Hashim went to him and he designated each of them to rule over a district. Even Mansur and Safah (who later became the first two ‘Abbasid caliphs) had connivance with him and this continued till the time of Marwan Himar and the emergence of Abu Muslim.”[97][498]

During the ‘Abbasid period, the ‘Alawi movements always emerged, one definite consequence of which was the scattering of the ‘Alawis in the different regions. For example, after the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah during the reign of Mansur and his defeat, the descendants of Imam al-Hasan (‘a) were scattered in the different places. In this regard, Mas‘udi thus says: The brothers of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allah (Nafs az-Zakiyyah) were scattered in the different places. His son, ‘Ali ibn Muhammad, went to Egypt where he was killed later. His other son, ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, went to Khurasan and from there proceeded to Sind where he was killed. His third son, Hasan ibn Muhammad went to Yemen where he was put behind bars and passed away while in prison. His (Nafs az-Zakiyyah’s) brother, Musa, went to Mesopotamia.

Another brother of Nafs az-Zakiyyah, Yahya, went to Rey and from there he proceeded to Tabaristan. Another brother of his, Idris, went to Maghrib. Yet another brother, Ibrahim, went to Basrah where he formed an army composed of men from Ahwaz, Fars among other cities, but his uprising ended in failure.[98][499]

Although most of them were pursued by the ‘Abbasid agents and were unable to remain in one place and were later killed, their impact remained. Sometimes, their children lived in those places. For example, ‘Abd Allah, son of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah, as narrated by Mas‘udi, was not able to remain in Khurasan and thus, he went to Sind.[99][500] Yet, the author of the book, Muntaqilah at-Talibiyyin, narrates that the son of ‘Abd Allah, Ibrahim, remained in Khurasan and had two sons named Qasim and Muhammad.[100][501]

Similarly, there was a group in Transoxiana which was tracing itself back to Irahim ibn Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah.[101][502]

Now, we shall survey the condition of the cities and regions in which the Shi‘ah lived in large number during the second century AH.
a. Khurasan

At the beginning of the second century AH, the movement of the campaigners of Banu Hashim[102][503] commenced in Khurasan and many people there embraced Shi‘ism. Ya‘qubi narrates, When Zayd was martyred, the Shi‘ah in Khurasan were in great commotion and expressed their faith in Shi‘ism. The preachers were openly stating the atrocity and tyranny of the Umayyads against the descendants of the Prophet (S).[103][504]

It remained so until such time that Yahya ibn Zayd went to Khurasan and lived there in disguise for sometime. And when he rose up, many people gathered around him.[104][505] Mas‘udi narrates, “On the year when Yahya was killed, every infant that was born in Khurasan was named Yahya.”[105][506]
Of course, due to the presence of Zaydis and ‘Abbasid campaigners, Shi‘ism of the people of Khurasan had more Zaydi and Kaysani color. This is particularly true in view of the fact that in the beginning, the ‘Abbasids laid the foundation of their legitimacy upon the succession of Muhammad ibn ‘Ali to Abu Hashim, son of Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah. As Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani writes in describing ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah: He is the same person whom the Shi‘ah of Khurasan were thinking to be the heir of his father whom they thought was the Imam. His heir in turn was Muhammad ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas while Muhammad ibn ‘Ali designated Ibrahim as his successor. In this manner, succession among the Abbasids was institutionalized.[106][507]

The Khurasanis had always been supporters of the ‘Abbasids, and when the dichotomy between the ‘Alawis and ‘Abbasids occurred, they sided with the latter. For example, during the battle against Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah most of the ‘Abbasid soldiers were Persian-speaking Khurasanis.

Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani narrates: When Khudhayr Zubayri, one of the commanders of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah, was coming to the battlefield from Medina, the Khurasanis were saying in Persian, “Khudhayr amad; Khudhayr amad” {Khudhayr came; Khudhayr came}.[107][508]

b. Qum

Qum has been one of the most important Shi‘ah-populated cities since the second century AH. This city, apart from being founded after the advent of Islam, has been founded by the Shi‘ah and Shi‘ah resided in and populated it from the very beginning. It is Shi‘ah Imamiyyah that has always been there without experiencing any deviation. Not only have Sinyan ever lived there but also the Ghulat did not find their way there, and even if they had, the people would have rejected them.[108][509] Many of the people there used to come to the pure Imams (‘a) to learn from these great personages, always maintaining contact with their Imams.

In 82 AH when the revolt of Ibn Ash‘ath against Hajjaj was crushed and he fled to Kabul,[109][510] a number of his soldiers were also Shi‘ah such as ‘Abd Allah, Ahwas, Na‘im, ‘Abd ar-Rahman, and Ishaq, sons of Sa‘d ibn Malik ibn ‘Amir al-Ash‘ari, who went to the districts of Qum after the defeat of Ash‘ath. There were seven villages there one of which was known as “Kamandan”. After these brothers’ stay in this village, their kith and kin joined them and resided in all the seven villages. Gradually, these seven villages merged together and they all become “Kamandan”. Kamandan was Arabized and shortened into “Qum”.[110][511]

From then on, Qum has become one of the most important concentration centers of the Shi‘ah, and the ‘Alawis in particular, who arrived and resided there from everywhere.[111][512] At the end of the second century AH, the arrival of Lady Fatimah al-Ma‘sumah (Imam ar-Ridha’s (‘a) sister) is considered the turning point in the history of this city, bringing about ample blessings to it.

c. Baghdad

Baghdad was founded during the second century hijri, 145 AH in particular, by Mansur, the second ‘Abbasid caliph, and soon became one of the demographic concentration centers of the Shi‘ah.[112][513]

This fact was unambiguously proved in Imam al-Kazim (‘a) burial procession. The huge number of attendants seriously alarmed the ‘Abbasids so much so that Sulayman ibn Mansur, Harun ar-Rashid’s uncle, participated in it barefooted just to appease the people.[113][514]

Baghdad was founded in Iraq and most of the people of Iraq were Shi‘ah. Although Baghdad at the beginning was a military and political city, with the passage of time the intellectual center of the Muslim world was also transferred there and Shi‘ah of the neighboring cities such as Kufah, Basrah, Mada’in among others took residence there and very quickly constituting a large population. After the minor occultation {ghaybah as-sughrah}, Baghdad became the intellectual and religious center for the Shi‘ah who flourished there by virtue of the Shi‘ah government of Al Buyah (Buyeds), until such time that Shaykh at-Tusi transferred the Shi‘ah center to Najaf.

The Shi‘ah-Populated Places during the Third Century Hijri

The geographical expansion of Shi‘ism in the third century AH can be discussed and studied in two ways; the first is through the formation of the Shi‘ah states in the Muslim territories. In 250 AH the ‘Alawis in Tabaristan formed a government.[114][515]

During the latter part of the third century AH, descendants of Imam al-Husayn (‘a) set up a Zaydi government in Yemen. In 296 AH the Fatimid state was established in the north of Africa.[115][516] These governments were not based on Shi‘ah Imamiyyah fundamentals, but their existence showed the extent of Shi‘ism and indicated the fertile ground for its acceptance in the Muslim territories—an opportunity which had been utilized by the Isma‘ilis and Zaydis.

The second way is through the list of regions where the pure Imams (‘a) designated proxies. The institution of deputyship {wikalah} had been founded since the time of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a), and during the time of Imam al-Hadi and Imam al-‘Askari (‘a) the activity of this institution had reached its climax. The regions where the Imams’ (‘a) deputies were dispatched included Ahwaz, Hamedan, Sistan, Bust, Rey, Basrah, Wasit, Baghdad, Egypt, Yemen, Hijaz, and Mada’in.[116][517]

Of course, Kufah, Qum, Samarra, and Nayshabur were considered as the most important Shi‘ah-dominated cities till the end of the third century AH, and the Shi‘ah jurisprudence based on the traditions of the pure Imams (‘a) was taught there. After the third century, nevertheless, Kufah declined in importance being gradually replaced by Baghdad, and with the arrival of the Al Buyah and the presence of distinguished figures such as Shaykh al-Mufid, Sayyid Murtadha, Sayyid Radhi, and Shaykh at-Tusi, the religious seminary in Baghdad flourished.

Regarding the Shi‘ah influence in Baghdad during the fourth century AH, Adam Mitch (?) thus writes: But in Baghdad which was the capital of Islam in its true sense and where the waves of all intellectual currents were strong, all schools of thought had followers. Of all these schools of thought, two were the strongest and most uncompromising—Hanbali and Shi‘ah.

The followers of Shi‘ism were particularly concentrated around the market of Karakh and only at the end of the fourth, this direction to the major bridge in Bab at-Taq was also populated. In places west of Dajlah, especially Bab al-Basrah, Hashimis (‘Abbasid sadat) constituted a strong community with intense enmity toward the Shi‘ah.

Yaqut thus writes: “The residents of the district of Bab al-Basrah, between Karakh and Qiblah, were all Hanbali Sunnis, and those on the left and western parts of Karakh were also Sunnis. But the people of Karakh were entirely Shi‘ah and no Sunni could be found among them.”

…As recorded by historians, the first time the Shi‘ah of Baghdad gathered in Baratha Masjid in 313 AH, it was reported to the caliph that a group is gathering there to collectively curse the caliphs.

The caliph ordered for it to be besieged on Friday at the time of congregational prayer, and thirty worshippers were arrested and searched. Baked clays {muhr} with the name of the Imam engraved therein were found on them… In 321 AH, ‘Ali ibn Yalbakh, the Turkish commander, ordered for the cursing of Mu‘awiyah and Yazid on the pulpits.

The public made a hullabaloo, and Barbahari, the leading Hanbali, and his supporters were identified as the ones responsible for the unrests. On account of the seditions and attitudes of the Hanbalis toward the people in 323 AH, it was ordered that two Hanbalis should not be seen together anywhere in Baghdad, and the ‘Abbasid caliph Radhi issued an order in which the offenses to be committed by the Hanbalis and their corresponding punishments were indicated.[117][518]

Summary

During the ‘Abbasid period, the ‘Alawi movements constantly emerged, a definite consequence of which was the diaspora of the ‘Alawis in the different regions. As such, during the second century AH, Shi‘ism transcended beyond the frontiers of the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq.

The journey of the ‘Abbasid campaigners to Khurasan began at the beginning of the second century AH, where many people initially embraced Shi‘ism though Shi‘ism with more Kaysani influence.

Since the second century AH, Qum has become one of the most important Shi‘ah-dominated cities. This city was founded by the Shi‘ah and Shi‘ism there has always been Ithna ‘Ash‘ari Imamiyyah. Although Baghdad was the capital of the ‘Abbasid caliphate, by the transfer of Shi‘ah from the neighboring cities such as Kufah, Basrah and Mada’in, it became one of the demographic concentration centers of the Shi‘ah.

During the third century AH, Shi‘ism was extended in many regions in the Muslim territories. This fact is clearly illustrated from the list of the regions where the pure Imams (‘a) had their representatives. It was for this reason that the Shi‘ah governments in Tabaristan, Yemen and Africa were set up.

Up to the end of the third century AH, Kufah, Qum, Samarra, and Nayshabur were regarded as the most important Shi‘ah-populated cities.

Shi‘ism among the Different Tribes

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

Basically, ‘Ali (‘a) had more Shi‘ah and sympathizers from the ‘Adnanis from among the Qahtani tribes, and Shi‘ism among the Qahtanis had enormously expanded. The main Shi‘ah who constituted the historians and soldiers of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) were Arab tribes from the south (Yemen) and Qahtanis. For instance, the Imam (‘a) thus said in Rajzi, one of the battle arenas in Siffin:

أنا الغلام القرشي المؤتمن الماجد الأبيض ليث كالشّطن

%%%يرضى به السّادة من اهل اليمن من ساكني نجد و من اهل عدن)

I am a Qurayshi youth—trustworthy, great, pure, and like a lion—with whom the distinguished men of the people of Yemen from among the residents of Najd and ‘Aden are pleased.[118][519]

Similarly, after the demise of the Prophet of Islam (S), most of ‘Ali’s (‘a) supporters among the companions of the Prophet (S) were Ansar who were Qahtani in origin, and constituted most of those who accompanied ‘Ali (‘a) from Medina up to the Battle of Jamal.[119][520] In the same vein, when Imam al-Husayn (‘a) set off toward Kufah, ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas said to him: If the people of Iraq like you and want to assist you, you write to them, “The enemy shall expel you from your city. Then, you come here.” Instead, you move toward Yemen where there are mountains, strongholds and forts that Iraq does not have. Yemen is a vast land and your father have Shi‘ah there. You go there and then send your preachers to the neighboring places to invite the people to come to you.

The companions of Imam al-Husayn (‘a), with the exception of Banu Hashim and some Ghaffaris, also belonged to Yemeni tribes.[120][521] As Mas‘udi has said, “From among the companions of the Prophet (S), only four persons attained martyrdom at the lap of the Prophet (S) and these four were from the Ansar.”[121][522]

The descent of the Ansar to Yemeni tribes is also obvious.

In contrast, the chiefs and nobles of Quraysh were hostile to ‘Ali (‘a) and his descendants (just as they were hostile to the Prophet (S)), while the sympathizers of the Imam (‘a) among them were few. Even the tribes that had close relations with the Quraysh, such as the tribe of Thaqif and the people of Ta’if who were supporters of Mu‘awiyah during and after the Battle of Siffin, had always been in the ranks of those who opposed ‘Ali (‘a).

For example, when Mu‘awiyah dispatched Busr ibn Artat to pillage the cities of Hijaz and Yemen, as Busr was approaching Ta’if, Mughayrah ibn Shu‘bah went to welcome him, saying: “May God give you pleasant reward! I heard the news of your harshness toward the enemies and benevolence toward the friends.” Busr said, “O Mughayrah! I want to put pressure on the people of Ta’if so as for them to pledge allegiance to the Commander of the Faihtful Mu‘awiyah.” Mughayrah said, “O Busr! Why do you want to do to your friends what you did to your enemies? Do not do it lest everybody turned into your enemy.”[122][523]

There were also very few besides the Banu Hashim from among the Quraysh, such as Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Hashim Mirqal, who were on the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) side although from among the clans of Quraysh and opponents of ‘Ali (‘a), there were also some who accompanied him. For instance, Khalid ibn Walid was one of the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) adversaries, but his son, Muhajir ibn Khalid was among the soldiers of the Imam in the Battle of Siffin. Another case is that of ‘Abd Allah ibn Abi Hudhayfah, Mu‘awiyah’s maternal cousin, who was one of the sincere Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a), and in the end attained martyrdom at the hands of Mu‘awiyah’s agents.

‘Ali (‘a) had followers and supporters from among all the Yemeni tribes such as the tribes of Kindih, Naka‘, Azd, Juhaynah, Himir, Bujaylah, Khath‘am, Khuza‘ah, Hadhramut, Mudhhaj, Ash‘ar, Tay, Sadus, Hamdan, and Rabi‘ah.[123][524] But among them, the two tribes of Hamdan and Rabi‘ah were leading.

The Hamdanis who embraced Islam during the time of the Prophet (S), through ‘Ali’s (‘a) efforts, had always been sympathetic to him, and were considered as among the Imam’s sincere Shi‘ah. Mas‘udi says, “During the Battle of Siffin, not a single person from among them was in the army of Mu‘awiyah.”[124][525]

Regarding Hamdan, ‘Ali has said:

ولو كنت بوّاباً على باب الجنّة لقلت لِحَمْدان أدخلوا بسلام

If I were the gatekeeper of paradise, I shall say to the tribe of Hamdan, “Enter in peace!”[125][526]
Mu‘awiyah held a great grudge against the Hamdanis. One day during the Battle of Siffin, he went to the battle arena and recited this poem:

لا عيش الاّ فلق الهام من أرحب و يشكر شبام
قوم هم اعداء اهل الشام كم من كريم بطل همام
وكم قتيل و جريح ذام كذاك حرب السّادة الكرام

I shall not live unless I rip the heads of those of (the clans of) Arhab, Yashkar and Shabam (from the tribe of Hamdan).

They are people who are enemies of the people of Sham. So many of them are great, heroic and brave men.

So many they have killed, injured and handicapped. Yes, such is the battle of the gallant noblemen.
Then, by reciting this epic verse:

اللهم رب الحلّ والحرام لا تجعل الملك لاهل الشام

O Lord of hall and haram! Do not bestow the rule to the people of Sham, Sa‘id ibn Qays Hamdani attacked Mu‘awiyah while holding forward his spear, and Mu‘awiyah fled from him toward the center of the army of Sham. And he sent Dhu’l-Kala‘ (one of the commanders of Sham) to confront Sa‘d ibn Qays and the ensuing combat lasted till night. In the end, the people of Sham accepted defeat and fled. At this juncture, the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) recited this poem to encourage the Hamdanis:

فوارس من حمدان ليسوا بعزل غذاة الوغى من شاكر و شبام
يقودهم حامى الحقيقة ماجد سعيد بن قيس و الكريم محام
جزى الله همد ان الجنان فانهم سهام العدى في كلّ يوم حمام

Horsemen of Hamdan from (the tribes of) Shakir and Shabam do not slacken in the morning battle.

The advocate of truth and great man, Sa‘id ibn Qays, leads them. The kind people themselves shall also be protected.

May Allah grant the reward of paradise for (the tribe of) Hamdan as they are all arrows to the hearts of the enemies during battles.[126][527]

As such, we can see poems composed by the army of Sham against Hamdan especially during the Battle of Siffin. For instance, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As addressed the tribe of Hamdan on one of the days of the Battle of Siffin, saying:

الموت يغشاه من القوم الانف يوم لهمدان و يوم للصّدف
و في سدوس نحوه ما ينخرف نضربها بالسّيف حتى ينصرف
و لتميم مثلها او يعترف

It shall receive death from this tribe; one day, Hamdan is victorious while another day it is just a shell.

The tribe of Sadus is also like them; as if it is not becoming old, but we shall strike them with the sword so as to restore the condition.

We shall treat (the tribe of) Tamim in the same manner, unless they confess submission.[127][528]
A number of women of the tribe of Hamdan had also incited the supporters and soldiers of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) during the Battle of Siffin against Mu‘awiyah. Among these women were Sawdah Hamdaniyyah and Zurqa’ Hamdaniyyah, daughters of ‘Addi ibn Qays.[128][529] Sawdah addressed his father saying:

شعر كفعل ابيك يابن عمارة يوم الطّعان و ملتقى الاقران
وانصر عليّاً و الحسين و رهطه واقصد لهند و ابنها بهوان
ان الإمام اخا النّبي محمّد علم الهدى و منارة الإيمان
فقد الجيوش و سره امام لوائه قدماً بأبيض صارم و سنان[129][530]

Given this, Mu‘awiyah nursed a grudge against them. And after the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a) they were summoned to Sham. They were asked to explain about their poems and they were reproached.[130][531]

The second Yemeni tribe which had many Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a) among its members was the tribe of Rabi‘ah. For example, in enumerating the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a) Burqa has allocated a certain part to the companions of ‘Ali (‘a) from the tribe of Rabi‘ah while allocating the rest of the Yemeni Shi‘ah in another part.[131][532]

When ‘Ali (‘a) heard that a number of the tribe of Rabi‘ah in Basrah attained martyrdom at the hands of the army of ‘A’ishah, he said:

يا لهف نفسي على ربيعة ربيعة السّماعة المطيعة

I pity the Rabi‘ah, the obedient and submissive Rabi‘ah![132][533]

Mas‘udi also says, “‘Ali (‘a) had many talks about Rabi‘ah and eulogies to them because they were his helpers and supporters as well as his pillar among pillars.” Among ‘Ali’s (‘a) statements about Rabi‘ah is the poem below which he recited during the Battle of Siffin:

لمن راية سوداء يخفق ظلها إذا قيل قدمها حضين تقدماً
فيوردها في الصف حتى يعلها حياض المنايا تقطر الموت و الدّما
جزى الله قوماً قاتلوا في لقائه لدى الموت قدماً ما اعروا كرماً
واطيب أخباراً و اكرم شيمةً اذا كان اصوات الرجال تغمغما
ربيعة أعنى إنَّهم أهل نجدة و بأس إذا لاقو، خميساً عرمرما

The one who has the black banner and it is hoisted—once it is said to him to bring forward the banner, He will then join the ranks so as to bring forth the spears for death and blood drop from them.

May Allah bestow reward to the community that fought in the battle, welcomed death, and never opposed goodness.

They are the most well-dressed and beautiful-faced of people, when the voices of men at the battlefield are winded together.

I am referring to (the tribe of) Rabi‘ah. When confronting a huge army, they are brave and powerful.[133][534]

It was one of the chiefs of Rabi‘ah, Jamil ibn Ka‘b Tha‘labi who was considered one of the Shi‘ah and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a). When he was captured by Mu‘awiyah, the latter told him: “Which blessing is greater than this that God made us prevailed over a man who within an hour killed a large number of our supporters!”[134][535]

Shaqiq ibn Thawr Sudusi also said during the Battle of Siffin while addressing the tribe of Rabi‘ah: “O group of Rabi‘ah! Once ‘Ali is killed, there will be no excuse for even a single person from you to remain alive.”[135][536] Also, after the death of Yazid, the people of Kufah expelled the Umayyad governor from their city and wanted to install somebody in his stead.

Some people suggested ‘Amr ibn Sa‘d to be the amir. Mas‘udi narrates that at that moment, the women of Hamdan, Kahlan, Ansar, Rabi‘ah, and Nakha‘ entered the central mosque. While weeping for Imam al-Husayn (‘a), they were saying: “Is it not enough that ‘Amr ibn Sa‘d killed Husayn and now he wants also to be our amir?”

With this statement, they made the people weep and persuaded them to abandon ‘Amr ibn Sa‘d.[136][537]

Summary

Most of the supporters and Shi‘ah of the Commander of the Faithful were from the Qahtani and Yemeni tribes.

Among the companions of the Prophet (S), most of ‘Ali’s (‘a) sympathizers were from among the Ansar who had Yemeni origin.

Imam al-Husayn’s (‘a) main supporters were from among the Yemeni tribes, with the exception of the Banu Hashim and some Ghaffari men.

In contrast, the chiefs and nobles of Quraysh were inimical to ‘Ali (‘a), and his descendants and supporters among them were very few.

Among the Yemeni tribes, the two tribes of Hamdan and Rabi‘ah were leading in Shi‘ism.

The Science of Jurisprudence among the Shi‘ah

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

The totality of man’s actions, which is his relationship with God and fellow men, is in need of rules that embrace the science of jurisprudence. The laws of Islam have a divine origin emanating from the will of God. Of course, the will of God is never dependent upon contract and consent. It is rather based on intrinsic and true felicity and adversity. The Noble Messenger (S) is the messenger of God and his decree is the decree of God:

وَ ما يَنْطِقُ عَنِ ٱلْهَوَى إِنْ هُوَ إِلاَّ وَحْيٌ يُوْحى

“Nor doth he speak of (his own) desire. It is naught save an inspiration that is inspired.”[90][627]

And it is based on the verse, “Obey Allah and obey the Apostle and those vested with authority among you”[91][628] that obedience to ‘those vested with authority’ {uli’l-amr}—the true successors of the Prophet (S)—has been placed along with obedience to God and the Messenger (S). The statements of the infallible Imams (‘a) are nothing but an inspiration from God, and like the statements of the Prophet (S), obedience to them is obligatory.

The State of Jurisprudence during the Period of the Companions {sahabah} and the Followers {tabi‘un}

But after the demise of the Prophet (S) when the true path of Islam was changed and people were kept away from the rightful successors of the Prophet (S), they refer to the companions {sahabah} of the Prophet (S) concerning religious issues and problems. Of course, a number of the sahabah were forerunners in this matter. As Ibn Sa‘d says, during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, ‘Ali, ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn ‘Awf, Mu‘adh ibn Jabal, Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, and Zayd ibn Thabit issued religious edicts {fatawa}.[92][629]

The pure Imams (‘a) and a number of the Shi‘ah among the sahabah such as ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas and Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri were also recognized generally by the Ahl as-Sunnah as jurists and well-informed of the laws of Islam, and were referred by them.[93][630]

Of course, during that period, the Shi‘ah used to refer to the infallible Imams (‘a) and leaders of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) in matters of jurisprudence and Islamic teachings in general. So, jurisprudence and ijtihad[94][631], as they are applied today, were not existent then. But after the end of the period of the sahabah, on account of the emergence of new issues in jurisprudence, a number of the Followers {tabi‘un} (the generation succeeding the sahabah) had engaged in matters of jurisprudence {fiqh} and the term faqih {jurist or jurisprudent} was applied to them. Among them were the “seven jurists” of Medina.[95][632]

The State of Jurisprudence among the Shi‘ah

The state of jurisprudence among the Shi‘ah was different owing to the presence of the infallible Imams (‘a) and ijtihad, then discussed among the Ahl as-Sunnah, was not developed among the Shi‘ah.
It can be said in general that the Shi‘ah jurisprudence during the periods of the presence of the infallible Imams (‘a) up to the end of the minor occultation {ghaybah as-sughra} has been at the period of settlement and preparation for ijtihad.[96][633] With the presence of the infallible Imams (‘a), keeping open the door of knowledge and accessibility of the textual sources, the need for ijtihad, which largely depends on intellectual bases, had not been much felt then.

Shi‘ah jurisprudence on the basis of ijtihad was first founded by Ibn Abi ‘Aqil ‘Ummani (died in the first part of the fourth century AH), a contemporary of al-Kulayni. After him, Muhammad ibn Junayd Askafi (died mid-fourth century AH) continued his way and fortified the edifices of ijtihad and juristic deduction {istinbat}.

They are known as the “Qadimayn” {the two seniors}. Shaykh al-Mufid (died 413 AH) and Sayyid Murtadha ‘Alam al-Huda (died 436 AH) also followed the path of ijtihad until it was the turn of Shaykh at-Tusi (460 AH). The Shi‘ah jurisprudence attained a glorious stage through this great man. Apart from writing reliable books on hadith, At-Tahdhib and Al-Istibsar, he also strived to collect books on jurisprudence and ijtihad, authoring such books on jurisprudence as An-Nihayah, Mabsut and Khilaf.

Of course, it does not mean that ijtihad and jurisprudence had never been discussed during the presence of the pure Imams (‘a). As a matter of fact, some people had no direct access to the pure Imams (‘a) due to location and peculiar conditions.

So, in this regard, the pure Imams (‘a) presented to the people the criteria by which to identify the jurists to whom they could refer in case of necessity, dealing in a sense with the preliminary ijtihad as well as answering the inquiries of people. For example, it is stated in the Maqbulah of ‘Umar ibn Hanzalah that he asked Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) about two persons from among the Shi‘ah who were in conflict over religious issues such as liability and debt {dayn} and inheritance {mirath}.

The Imam said, “They have to look for a person who could narrate our hadiths, give opinion about what we declared lawful {halal} and unlawful {haram}, and know our decrees {ahkam} for I declare such a person as the judge and arbiter for you.”[97][634]

Sometimes also the pure Imams (‘a) would appoint certain persons to whom the Shi‘ah refer in matters of jurisprudence and religious laws. For instance, according to Shaykh at-Tusi, ‘Ali ibn Musayyab said to Imam ar-Ridha (‘a): “There is a long way and I cannot come to you whenever I want. From whom should I ask about your religious decrees?”

The Imam replied: “{You may ask} from Zakariyya ibn Adam as he is trustworthy in {matters of} religion and the world.”[98][635] Similarly, Imam al-Baqir (‘a) commanded Aban ibn Taghlib to sit in the mosque and issue religious edicts {fatawa} for the people.[99][636]

The Beginning of Ijtihad

During the period of the pure Imams (‘a), they used to teach their students the principles of jurisprudence {usul al-fiqh} and the rules of deducing them. For this reason, books attributed to the infallible Imams (‘a) have been written by Shi‘ah scholars; for example, the book Usul Al ar-Rasul written by Hashim Khwansari; Usul Asliyyah authored by Sayyid ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad-Ridha Husayn; and the book Fusul al-Muhimmah on the principles of the Imams (‘a) penned by Muhammad ibn al-Hasan Hurr al-‘Amili.[100][637]

In the books on rijal, some of the great companions of the pure Imams (‘a) have been described as jurists {fuqaha}. For example, Najashi thus says about Fadhl ibn Shadhan: “…He was one of our reliable companions among the jurists {fuqaha} and scholastic theologians {mutakallimun}.”[101][638]

The Jurists {fuqaha} among the Companions of the Imams (‘a)

Shaykh at-Tusi has introduced eighteen persons from among the companions of Imam al-Baqir, Imam as-Sadiq, Imam al-Kazim, and Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) as the Imams’ jurist-companions, describing them as “jurists among the companions of Abu Ja‘far (‘a),” “jurists among the companions of Abu ‘Abd Allah (‘a),” ),” and “jurists among the companions of Abu Ibrahim and Abu’l-Hasan ar-Ridha (‘a).”

In continuation, Shaykh at-Tusi has added that the Shi‘ah have consensus of opinion regarding the authenticity of their narrations and acknowledge their expertise in jurisprudence among the companions of the pure Imams (‘a). He then introduced them in three categories.

First category: The jurists among the companions of Imam al-Baqir (‘a) such as Zurarah known as Kharbud, Barid, Abu Basir Asadi, Fadhil ibn Yasar, and Muhammad ibn Muslim at-Ta’ifi, among whom Zurarah was the most learned. The six were also considered among the companions of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).

Second category: The jurists among the companions of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) such as Jamil ibn Darraj, ‘Abd Allah ibn Maskan, ‘Abd Allah ibn Bakir, Hammad ibn ‘Isa, and Hammad ibn ‘Uthman.

Third category: The jurists among the companions of Imam al-Kazim and Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) such as Yunus ibn ‘Abd ar-Rahman, Safwan ibn Yahya, Biya‘ as-Sabiri Muhammad ibn Abi ‘Umayr, ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Mughayrah, Hasan ibn Mahbub, and Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Nasr.[102][639]

In the section about the reports {akhbar} of the Shi‘ah jurists and their written books, Ibn Nadim has also mentioned a number of the jurists among the companions of the pure Imams (‘a), saying: “They are sheikhs who have narrated fiqh from the Imams.” He has then mentioned them, viz. Salih ibn Abu’l-Aswad, ‘Ali ibn Ghurrab, Abu Yahya Layth Muradi, Zurayq ibn Zubayr, Abu Salmah al-Basri, Isma‘il ibn Ziyad, Abu Ahmad ‘Umar ibn ar-Radhi‘, Dawud ibn Farqad, ‘Ali ibn Ri’ab,

‘Ali ibn Ibrahim Mu‘alli, Hisham ibn Salim, Muhammad ibn Hasan al-‘Attar, ‘Abd al-Mu’min ibn Qasim al-Ansari, Sayf ibn ‘Umayrah Nakha‘i, Ibrahim ibn ‘Umar San‘ani, ‘Abd Allah ibn Maymun, Qadah, Rabi‘ ibn Madrak, ‘Umar ibn Abi Ziyad Abzari, Zaykar ibn Yahya Wasiti, Abu Khalid ibn ‘Amru ibn Khalid Wasiti, Hariz ibn ‘Abd Allah Azadi Sijistani, ‘Abd Allah Halabi, Zakariyya Mu’min, Thabit Ḍarari, Mathna ibn Asad Khayyat, ‘Umar ibn Adhinah, ‘Ammar ibn Mu‘awiyah Dahni ‘Abdi Kufi, Mu‘awiyah ibn ‘Ammar Dahani, and Hasan ibn Mahbub Sarad, for each of whom one book has been mentioned.[103][640]

Summary

The totality of actions of man is in need of rules which embrace the science of jurisprudence.

After the Holy Prophet (S) when the people were kept away from the rightful successors, they referred to the companions {sahabah} of the Prophet (S).

By the end of the period of the sahabah, a number of jurists {fuqaha} emerged from among the Ahl as-Sunnah.

But the condition of jurisprudence {fiqh} among the Shi‘ah was different because the Infallibles (‘a) were present and the need for ijtihad was not so much felt. Jurisprudence during these periods was at the stage of preparation for ijitihad. In fact, jurisprudence base on ijtihad was first discussed at the time of Ibn Abi ‘Aqil ‘Ummani during the fourth century AH.

Of course, during the periods of the Imams (‘a) a sort of ijtihad was also discussed. At times, the pure Imams (‘a) would teach the way and method of ijtihad to their companions. For this reason, books on the principles of jurisprudence {usul al-fiqh} attributed to those personages were written.

Shaykh at-Tusi has introduced eighteen persons from among the companions of Imam al-Baqir, Imam as-Sadiq, Imam al-Kazim, and Imam ar-Ridha (‘a) as “jurists among the companions of the Imams (‘a)”.

The System of Ijtihad in Shi’ahs

By: Sayyid Muhammad Rizvi

Some Important Terms

1. Ijtihad literally means "to endeavor, strive, put one­self out, work hard." In Islamic legal terminology it means “the process of deriving the laws of the shari'ah from its sources.”

2. Mujtahid means a person who does ijtihad or who is an expert of Islamic laws.

3. Fiqh literally means knowledge, and in Islamic ter­minology it means the science of Islamic laws.

4. Faqih (pl. fuqaha') means the expert of fiqh. The terms "mu­jtahid" and "faqih" mean the same.

The Importance of Ijtihad

Is ijtihad necessary? If Islam is a religion which is to stay till the end of time, then there must always be some people who can guide the Muslims in the changing circumstances of time and of place. After the Prophet of Islam (PBUH), the most ideal persons to guide Muslims were the Imams of Ahlul-Bayt. However, the Present Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi (a.s.) has gone into the Occultation and will re-appear when Allah (SWT) wishes him to appear. So what is to be done in the mean-time? Are the Shi'ahs to suspend the shari'ah? No, of course, not! Islam is the religion for all times and places.

The Imams of Ahlul-Bayt had foreseen the time of the Occultation and had prepared their followers for the situation in which they will not be in direct contact with their Imam. This preparation was done by training the Shi'ahs in the science of Islamic laws, or in other words, in ijtihad. Ijtihad is an essential phenomenon for the survival of the Islamic shari'ah during the Occultation of the Imam (a.s.). Without the system of ijtihad, we would not be able to apply Islamic laws in the rapidly changing circumstances of human society.

Ijtihad is not only permissible, but essential from the Islamic point of view. It is an obligation in Islam to study everything which is necessary for the spiritual develop­ment and material well-being of the Muslim community. However, this obligation is of the category which is known as wajib kifa’i, meaning “an obligation which is on every member of the community as long as it is unfulfilled; but as soon as some person or persons has fulfilled it, it is no longer an obligation on those who have not fulfilled it.”

In the present instance, for example, Islamic society needs experts in the medical sciences, in physics and chemistry, in engineering, edu­cation; and as long as there is a lack of expertise in these areas, it is an obligation on the community as a whole to acquire it. This means that a group of Muslims must devote themselves to research so as to benefit the Islamic people. Similarly, an Islamic society without experts in the shari'ah cannot properly consider itself Islamic, and so it is an obligation for a group of persons from this society to devote themselves to the study of the religious sciences to provide proper guidance to all Muslims.

This is such an important obligation that Allah (SWT) has exempted those who go to seek religious knowledge from the duty of jihad. He says: "It is not (right) for the believers to go forth all together (for jihad). So why should not a party from every section of them (the believers) go forth to become learned in the religion, and to warn their people when they return to them-so that haply they may beware?" (Surah at-Tawba, 9:124)

It is clear from many narrations that the Imams of Ahlul-Bayt (a.s.) used to be pleased whenever any of their companions taught religion or gave legal rulings (fatwa) to others. There are several documented cases of Shi'ahs who lived far from Medina asking the Imam of their time to appoint someone in their area to adjudicate between them in religious problems: Zakariyyah ibn Adam al-Qummi and Yunus ibn' Abdu 'r-Rahman, for example, were named by Imam 'Ali ar-Riza (a.s.), to solve disputes in their own districts. [v][19]

In a famous hadith, 'Umar ibn Hanzalah asked Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq (a.s.) about the legality of two Shi'ahs seeking a verdict from an illegitimate ruler in a dispute over a debt or a legacy. The Imam's answer was that it was absolutely forbidden to do so. Then Ibn Hanzalah asked what the two should do, and the Imam replied: “They must seek out one of your own who narrates our traditions, who is versed in what is permissible and what is forbidden, who is well-acquainted with our laws and ordinances, and accept him as judge and arbiter, for I appoint him as judge over you…”[v][20]

Besides these ahadith, we have quite a few sayings of the Imams which tell us what to do if we come across two ahadith which are contradictory or semi-contradic­tory and solving the contradictory ahadith is one of the functions of ijtihad. These types of ahadith are known as al-akhbar al-‘ilajiyyah, the ahadith which solve the problems in the process of ijtihad.

What we have mentioned above clearly shows that ijtihad is necessary for the perpetuity of the Islamic legal system.

Was not Ijtihad forbidden in the Early Shi’ah Sources?

There are some sayings of the Shi'ah Imams (a.s.), some writings of their companions and that of our early 'ulama which severely condemn the use of ijtihad. This has created confusion among non-specialist readers and has given rise to the question whether or not ijtihad was permitted in Shi'ah Islam.

This confusion can be easily sorted out by studying the changes undergone by the word "ijtihad". The word ijtihad was used for the first time by a Sunni school of fiqh in the meaning of ra'iy: Ra'iy means "a subjective opinion, an opinion based on one's personal judgement as opposed to that of the Qur'an and the hadith." In this sense, "ijtihad" was by itself an independent source of the shari'ah laws besides the Qur'an and the sunnah. Abu Hanifah, the founder of the Sunni Hanafi school of fiqh, was the main proponent of this system of ijtihad.[v][21] The term ijtihad continued to be used exclusively in the meaning of ra'iy up until the early seventh Islamic century.

In the seventh Islamic century, some of the Shi'ah 'ulama' started using the term ijtihad in a different and new meaning. They used the term “ijtihad” for "the process of deriving the laws of the shari'ah from its sources". In the first meaning, "ijtihad" stands alongside the Qur' an and the sunnah as an independent source of the shari'ah laws; in its new meaning, "ijtihad" is a process of deriving the shari' ah laws from the Qur' an and the sunnah. The first Shi'ah scholar to use the term "ijtihad" in its new meaning was Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 676 A.H.) in his al-Ma’arij. Al-Hilli says, "ijtihad means to strive for deriving the shari'ah laws from their sources."[v][22]

The change through which the meaning of "ijtihad" has undergone clears the confusion about the legality of ijtihad: some of the sayings of the Imams (a.s.), the writings of their companions and the early Shi'ah ulama condemn ijtihad in its pre-7th century meaning of "ra'iy"; they are not opposing the ijtihad in the post-7th century meaning of "the process of deriving the shari'ah laws from their sources". The condemned ijtihad is a source of the shari'ah laws, while the recommended ijtihad is only the process of deriving the shari'ah laws from their sources. The permissibility of ijtihad in its post-7th century meaning is beyond any doubt.

The Process of Ijtihad

The process of deriving the shari'ah laws from their sources is based on two main branches of Islamic sci­ences: usulu’l-fiqh and fiqh. "Usulu’l-fiqh " is the science of the method of deriving the shari'ah laws -- it is the methodology of ijtihad. "Fiqh" is the practice of ijtihad -- it is the process of deriving the shari'ah laws. In usulu'l-fiqh, the mujtahid studies the method of ijtihad; in fiqh, he uses that method to derive the shari'ah laws. Thus, usulu’l-fiqh is the theory of ijtihad whereas fiqh is the practice of ijtihad.
In the following pages, I would like to give an outline of usulu’l-fiqh and fiqh to familiarize the reader with the system of ijtihad.

A. Usulu’l-Fiqh

The first and fore-most issue to be discussed in usulu’l-fiqh is about “the binding authority of conviction” (hujjiyyatu’l-qat’). The validity of conviction is determined by intellectual reasoning. This is the corner-stone of ijtihad; it means that the main basis of determining a source of shari’ah is to see whether or not one can achieve conviction about the laws derived from that source.

If a mujtahid finds that a particular source for ex­ample, the Qur' an, is such that he can achieve conviction about the laws derived from it, then such a source is considered by him as a valid and reliable source for ijtihad. This process divides the potential sources of shari'ah laws into two: convincing and non-convincing.

Convincing (Qat’i) & Non-Convincing (Dhanni) Sources:

In examining the potential sources of the shari'ah, a mujtahid may find two kinds of sources: either the source creates conviction about the laws derived from it or not. In the first case, it is known as dalil qat'i – a convincing proof, a cogent proof, a proof which creates conviction about the proven laws. In the second case, the source is named as dalil dhanni-- a presumptive proof, a proof based on mere assumption.

The mujtahid will consider the dalil qat'i (the con­vincing proof) as a valid source for the shari'ah laws. But he will not consider the dalil dhanni as such because dalil dhanni does not create conviction it just gives rise to assumption. A mujtahid cannot rely on a dhanni proof or source for deriving laws unless the shari'ah itself approves its use for this purpose. Below I will give examples of two dhanni sources, one approved by the shari'ah and another disapproved by it.

The First Example: Among the various categories of hadith, there is a category known as khabar wahid thiqah - a hadith reported by a single reliable person. Khabar wahid thiqah is a dhanni source. Why? Because a hadith reported by a single person does not create conviction about its contents even if the reporter is reliable; there is the chance of forgetting, misunder­standing or unintended misquotation on the part of the truthful, reliable reporter.

However, in spite of being a dhanni source, khabar wahid thiqah is considered by most of Shi'ah mujtahids as a valid source for the shari'ah laws. Why? Because the shari'ah itself has approved it. Verse six of Chapter forty nine (Surah al-Hujuraat, 6:49) says that if a single report (khabar wahid) comes from an unreliable (fasiq) reporter, then it should not be accepted without further verification. The impli­cation of this verse is that if a single report comes from a reliable (thiqah) reporter, then accept it without any need for further verification. Therefore, the mujtahids accept the single hadith narrated by a reliable reporter as a source for shari'ah laws because the Qur'an has implicitly approved it.

The Second Example: One of the dhanni sources for the shari'ah laws is qiyas. In Islamic laws, qiyas means analogy. In qiyas, you look at a shari'ah law for one issue and then apply it to another issue because of the similar­ity that exists between the two. Let us suppose that "wine is haram" is a proven law of the shari'ah. You then look at beer and say that 'beer is like wine'; and then you apply the law of wine on beer -- here the prohibition of beer has been proved on basis of qiyas.

Qiyas is a dhanni proof, it does not create conviction because one cannot always know the real reason ('illah in Arabic, ratio legis in Latin) of the shari'ah laws. And since the qat'i sources of the shari'ah have not approved the use of qiyas as a way of deriving Islamic laws, qiyas is not accepted by our mujtahids as a valid source for shari' ah laws.[v][23]

However, according to most mujtahids, if the shari'ah has explicitly explained the ratio legis ('illah) of a particular law, then the mujtahid can generalize that law for other similar things by the means of qiyas. And in such cases, it is known as qiyas mansusi’l-illah -- an analogy based on the ratio legis explicitly explained (by the shari'ah).

Legal (Shar’i) & Rational ('Aqli) Proofs:

All sources of the shari'ah, whether qat'i or dhanni, can be of two types: dalil shar'i and dalil 'aqli. Dalil Shar'i means a source which emanates from religious texts; we may translate it as "legal proof'. Dalil 'aqli means a source which emanates from intellectual argu­ments.

1. Dalil Shar’i:

Dalil Shar'i or the Legal Proof. The dalil shar'i consists of the Qur' an and the sunnah -- the two main sources of the shari'ah. The dalil shar'i is divided into two: (a) Oral Proof like the Our'an and the hadith. (b) Non-Oral Proof like the practice of the ma'sum and his 'silent approval' of the action done in his presence. The silent approval of a ma'sum is known as "taqrir". How­ever, even the non-oral proof reaches to us through the oral reports of the witnesses; therefore, for all practical purpose, both the oral and non-oral proofs are on the same level.

In order-to use the Legal Proofs in ijtihad, the mu­jtahid has to study the following issues in Usulu’l-Fiqh:

(A) The Linguistic Problems:

Some of the questions studied in this area are:

i. Should I take all the words in dalil shar'i in their literal meaning?

ii. Are metaphorical meanings of any use in dalil shar'i or not?

iii. What are the imperative forms of words and what are their implications: does a command to do something automatically means the one is for­bidden from its opposite?

iv. What are the implications of the unconditional use of the word: do we generalize its contents?

v. What is the implication of a conditional sentence: do we restrict its application?

vi. What are the implications of a nass? (N ass means an oral proof containing a word which has only one meaning.)

vii. What are the implications ofa mujmal? (Mujmal means an oral proof containing a word which has more than one meaning and is used in those meanings equally.)

viii. How do we use the context of the sentence to understand the mujmal word? For example, the word "yad" is used in the Qur'an in the verses of wudu, tayammum and punishment for theft. The word "yad" means palms, forearm and hand. So how do you interpret the word "yad" in such verses? Well, in the verse of wudu it is simple because we have a context; the verse says that wash your "yad up to the elbows". The context ("up to the elbow") helps us in under­standing the meaning of "yad" in the verse of wudu.

(B) The Problems of Authenticity:

The mujtahid has also to study the ways of determin­ing the authenticity of the Legal Proofs. This problem has given rise to the development of two sciences known as 'Ilmu 'r-Rijal and Dirayatu 'l-Hadith.

'Ilmu 'r-Rijal literally means 'knowledge about men,' it deals with the biography and character of the narrators of hadith. On basis of this knowledge, the 'ulama' classify the narra­tors in different categories; and these categories in turn help in classifying the hadith as authentic or acceptable or weak or fabricated or unreliable, etc. There are at least 38 different classifications of hadith.

Dirayatu ' l-Hadith means the science of hadith, and it deals mostly with the "chain of narration" as a whole instead of the individual narrators. This science helps the mujtahid in classifying certain narrators into groups and expedites their judgement about hadith narrated through those particular channels.

Examples of how a mujtahid comes to know of a Legal Proof:

i. Tawatur: a narration reported by so many people that the very number of its reporters is enough to create conviction about the truth of its contents. A hadith or an account of a ma’sum’s narrated in such a way is known as mutawatir.

ii. Khabar wahid thiqah: a hadith narrated by a single reliable narrator. We have already mentioned khabar wahid thiqah earlier.

iii. Siratun mutasharri'ah: the general attitude or practice of the religiously-minded companions of our Imams about a particular issue which is not found in the existing hadith literature. This' general attitude or prac­tice' is known as siratun mutasharri'ah. This sirah indicates that an oral proof must have existed during their time. For example, if the prominent companions of Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq (a.s.) did not attend the Friday prayers led by persons appointed by the rulers, then their attitude proves that the Friday prayer behind a person appointed by an illegitimate government is not valid­ otherwise, the Imam would have objected to the actions of his companions.

iv. Ijma’: 'means consensus. In Usulu’l-Fiqh, it refers to the consensus of the early Shi'ah 'ulama' on an issue which is not found in the existing hadith literature. Such an ijma' indicates that an oral proof must have existed in their time on which they based their ruling. In Shi'ah jurisprudence, ijma' is not by itself a source of the shari'ah; instead, it is a means of proving the existence of an oral proof which is now extinct.

2. Dalil 'Aqli:

Dalil 'aqli means the intellectual reasoning or ra­tional argument. In Usulu'l-Fiqh, dalil 'aqli means the intellectual prepositions which can be used as a source of deriving shari'ah laws. However, the scope of intel­lectual prepositions in

shari'ah is limited; it is not like ijtihad bi 'r-ra'iy (application of independent opinion). The intellectual prepositions are only used for deriving the details of the shari'ah laws which exist.

For example, one such intellectual preposition says, "If an act is made obligatory (wajib) by the shari'ah, then it automatically follows that its essential preliminaries are also wajib." This intellectual preposition is known in Arabic as "muqaddimatu 'l-wajib, wajibun", So if the shari'ah says, "Hajj is wajib," then the mujtahid can use the above mentioned intellectual preposition and derive the following laws: to travel to Mecca is wajib; to acquire the means of transportation is wajib, and to apply for a passport is wajib -- because without these preliminaries, hajj would be not be possible.

The intellectual prepositions which are used in ijti­had are formed by studying, among other things, the following relationships between the shari'ah laws:

i. The relationship between haram (forbidden) and batil (invalid): if an act is haram, is it automatically batil also?

ii. The relationship between haram (forbidden) and sahih (valid): can an act be valid but haram at the same time?

iii. The relationship between legislation of a law (ja'l) and its application on an individual (fi'liyyah).

iv. The relationship between the laws and those on whom they are to be applied.

v. The relationship between laws and its essential preliminaries as explained in the example of hajj.

The Procedural Rules (Al-Usulu'l-'Amaliyyah)

After defining the sources of the shari'ah, the mujta­hid has to set up a mechanism to solve the problems which have not been mentioned in the Qur'an and the sunnah. For example, when a mujtahid looks into his sources for the ruling on smoking, he does not find anything specific on it. In Usulu 'l-Fiqh, the mujtahid establishes some "procedural rules" or "practical prin­ciples" which he will use in such cases. These rules or principles are known as "al-usulu 'l-‘amaliyyah".

The Usulu ‘l-‘Amaliyyah are four: asalatu ‘l-istishab; asalatu ‘l-bara’ah; asalatu ‘l-ihtiyat; and asalatu ‘t-takhyir.

i. Asalatu ‘l-Istishab means the principle or rule of continuity. This principle is used in a case in which a person has "a previous certainty" and "a present doubt" about the same thing. For example, there is a glass of water on my table. I am sure that it was ritually pure (tahir) in the morning, but now I doubt in its ritual purity. The principle of istishab says that act on your previous certainty and ignore your present doubt because doubt cannot over-ride certainty.

This procedural rule has been taken from the following hadith of Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) who said in the answer to Zurarah that “doubt cannot over-ride certainty; it can be over-ridden only by another certainty.”

ii. Asalatu 'l-Bara'ah means the principle of exon­eration. This procedural rule is applied in a case which has not been mentioned, explicitly or implicitly, in the sources of the shari'ah. Asalatu ‘l-Bara’ah says that since the shari'ah has no opinion in this issue, the Muslims are free to do whatever they like. For example, when dealing with the question of smoking, the mujtahid does not find any opinion about it in the sources of shari'ah. In such a case, he would apply the principle of exoneration and say that "Smoking is not haram."

iii. Asalatu ' l-Ihtiyat means the principle of precau­tion. This principle is applied in a case where there is only partial knowledge about the law; that is, in cases of al-‘ilmu ‘l-ijmali -- where there is a semi-doubt and a semi-certainty. In such cases, the shari'ah expects us to act precautionarily. A most familiar example where this principle is applied is the case of Friday prayer during the major occultation of the Present Imam. We know that on Fridays, one of the two prayers -either Friday prayer or noon prayer- is definitely wajib, but we do not know which one. Application of asalatu ‘l-ihtiyat in this case would mean that it is precautionarily better to pray both prayers to ensure that we have performed what was expected of us.

iv. The last procedural rule is known as Asalatu ‘t-Takhyir. Asalatu ‘t-Takhyir which means the principle of choice. This principle is applied in cases similar to that of asalatu ‘l-ihtiyat, that is, semi-doubt and semi certainty. However, the principle of choice is applied where it is not possible to act on both sides of the issue. For example, when dealing with the noon or Friday prayer issue, some mujtahids may conclude that saying both prayers is not practical and specifying one without a clear evidence is not correct -- therefore, they apply the principle of choice and say that one can say either Friday prayer or noon prayer.

The Problem of Contradiction

The last topic to be discussed in Usulu 'l-Fiqh deals with the problem of contradiction in the proofs of the shari'ah. The mujtahid has to layout a mechanism which he will use in case he comes upon contradiction in his sources. Our Imams have given quite a few guidelines to solve such problems; as mentioned earlier, the ahadith dealing with these problems are known as al-akhbaru ‘l-ilajiyyah.

The contradiction between the proofs can be found in different forms and has to be solved in different ways: (a) The contradiction between two oral-proofs can occur in following ways:

(a) The contradiction between two oral-proofs can occur in following ways:

i. A nass and a hadith with an "apparent" meaning: the former is preferred over the latter. For example, one hadith says, "Pray (salli) the mid-night prayer;" and another hadith says, “Mid-night prayer is recommended (mustahab).” The first example is of a hadith with an "apparent" meaning: it contains the word "pray" in imperative form which is used both for obligatory acts as well as for recommendation. The second example is of a hadith which is a nass: it contains the words "rec­ommended" which only means that the act is recom­mended and not wajib. In this case, the nass will be preferred and used as a qualifier for the "apparent" hadith.

ii. One is of a general nature and the other is conditional: the conditional proof curbs the generaliza­tion of the former. For example, one hadith says, "If you break your oath, then you must free a slave;" whereas another hadith says, "If you break your oath, then you must free a Muslim slave." The second hadith will be preferred and used to curb the general implication of the first hadith.

iii. One deals with the legislation of laws and the other restricts its application on certain individuals: the later over-rides the former. For example, one hadith says, "Respect the 'ulama;" while another hadith says, "Do not respect the fasiq 'ulama." The latter hadith limits the application of the former hadith.

(b) If two authentic ahadith contradict each other in such a way that it is not possible to reconcile them together, then both are to be discarded.

(c) If the contradiction is between "convincing oral­proof' and an non-oral, non-convincing proof, then the former is preferred.

(d) If there is contradiction between a convincing proof and a dhanni proof on the one hand and a proce­dural rule on the other, then the former is accepted because the latter is applied only when there is no proof at all.

(e) If there is a contradiction between the principles of bara’ah and of istishab, then the latter is preferred.

B. Fiqh

In fiqh, the mujtahid derives the shari'ah laws from the sources determined by him in Usulu 'l-Fiqh.

All the issues discussed in fiqh are traditionally classified into four main groups. This classification was made by Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 676 A.H.) in his famous work of jurisprudence Sharaya’u ‘l-Islam, The follow­ing is a list of the subjects discussed in fiqh according to the traditional classification:

Group One: ‘Ibadat -- the Acts of Worship:

• Cleanliness

• Prayers

• Fasting

• Wealth Tax

• Annual Tax

• Pilgrimage

• Jihad

• Bidding the good and forbidding the evil.

Group Two: ‘Uqud --Mutual Contracts:

• Business transaction (bay')

• Mortgage (rahn)

• Bank­ruptcy (muflis)

• Limitation of one's legal competence (hajr)

• Liability (ziman)

• Compromise in financial dis­putes (sulh)

• Partnership (shirkah)

• Silent Partnership in trade (mudarabah)

• Silent Partnership in agriculture (muzara’ah & musaqat)

• Trusts (wadi'ah)

• Lending ('ariyah)

• Hiring (ijarah)

• Representing Others (wikalah)

• Endowments (waqf)

• Deeds of Gifts (hibah)

• Making of Wills (wisayah)

• Marriage (nikah).

Group Three: ‘Iyqa’at --Unilateral Instigations:

• Divorce (talaq)

• Marital Disputes (khul’, mubarat, dhihar, ly’an, iyla’)

• Emancipation of slaves (itq)

• Con­fessions in legal matters (iqrar)

• Reward (ja'alah)

• Vows (yamin).

Group Four: Ahkam -- Miscellaneous:

• Hunting and Slaughtering (sayd and dhibahah)

• Eat­ing and Drinking (at’imah and ashribah)

• Misappropria­tion (ghasb)

• Neighbour's and Partner's first right to buy (shaf’ih)

• Revival of virgin land (ihya’u ‘l-mawat)

• In­heritance (irth)

• Arbitration (qada)

• Testimony (sha­hadah)

• Punishment (hudud)

• Retaliation (qisas)

• Blood-money or indemnity for bodily injury (diyah).

This was the old classification which has been used with slight changes till the present time. Here I would like to present a modern classification of fiqhi issues done by the late Sayyid Muhammad Baqir as-Sadr in his al-Fatawa al-Wadihah.[v][24] Ayatullah as-Sadr of Najaf, Iraq was a shinning star among the new generation mujtahids; unfortunately the Shi'ah world was deprived of his knowledge and leadership when he was tortured and killed by Saddam's regime in 1981. According to his classification, which we hope will be adopted by the fiqhi circles of our time all the shari'ah laws are divided into four groups:

Group One: ‘Ibadat -- the Acts of Worship:

• Cleanliness

• Prayers

• Fasting

• Pilgrimage to Mecca

Group Two: Financial Laws:

(a) On Social Level:

• Zakat

• Khums

• Land Tax (khiraj)

• Tax on the non-Muslims under the protection of an Islamic government (jaziyyah)

• Spoils of war (anfal).

(b) On Individual Level:

• The laws about the means of possession:

o revival of virgin land

o hunting

o by-products of one's own property

o inheritance

o loan

o mortgage

o deeds of gifts

o etc.

• The laws about the use of possessions:

o Business transactions

o Exchange of commodities based on compromise

o Partnership

o Endowment

o Legacy

o etc.

Group Three: Personal Laws:

• Marriage

• Divorce

• Marital affairs

• Eating

• Drinking

• Dressing

• Vows

• Oaths

• Hunting

• Slaughtering

• Bidding good and forbidding evil

• etc.

Group Four: Social Laws:

• Governance
• Judiciary

• Penal Code
• Jihad

• etc.

We may add in the list of "social laws" the new chapter started by Ayatullah al-Khu'i known as Kitabu ‘l-Mushtarikat (the Book of Public Property)'[v][25] which deals with the laws about public road, mosques, schools, welfare homes, rivers and streams, lakes and oceans, and mines.

A Look into the Future of Ijtihad

The sciences of usulu ‘l-fiqh and fiqh, like any other science, have evolved and expanded with the passage of time. But during the last hundred years, especially since the emergence of Shaykh Murtaza al-Ansari (1214-1281 A.H.), these two sciences have expanded greatly and rapidly. In light of this positive development, an idea has been floating among the experts of fiqh since the death of Ayatullah Husayn Burujardi about compartmentaliza­tion of ijtihad.

The first person who raised this issue was Shaykh ‘Abdu ‘l-Karim Ha’iri Yazdi (1276-1355 A.H.), who has the credit of revitalizing the Hawza 'Ilmiyyah of Qum. Shaykh Ha’iri’s student, Shahid Murtaza Mutahhari brought this idea in a public forum for the first time in a speech at the seminar organized after the demise of Ayatullah Burujardi in early sixties. He says, "It is better that fiqh be divided into different compartments, and that each group, after attaining the general ability of ijtihad, should specialize in one particular area of fiqh."[v][26]

This idea is very noble. But two recent developments in the Shi'ah world have made this idea into a necessity. First, the Islamic revolution in Iran has availed an un­precedented opportunity for the Shi'ah mujtahids to work on political, economic, social and moral problems which the Shi'ah community faces in Iran. Second, the large scale migration of Muslims to the West has given rise to issues and problems which were unheard of before. Expecting a single person to fully and compre­hensively provide guidance for all problems is asking for too much. The only solution for the future of the shari'ah is nothing but the compartmentalization of ijti­had.

However, this is not something which can emerge or be created overnight; it has to take its due course. After a couple of generations, hopefully, we might have mu­jtahids specializing in four different areas of fiqh: 1. Acts of worship (‘ibadat); 2. Economic problems; 3. Per­sonal laws; 4. Social and Political issues. And the Shi'ahs of that time will be doing taqliq of either four different mujtahids or of a council of ijtihad composed of mujtahids specializing in their respective fields.

In short, the dynamic spirit inherited by the Shi'ah 'ulama from their Imams will keep the light of ijtihad shining in one form or another. The future, al-hamdulillah, is bright.

Notes:

[v][19] Al-‘Amili, Shaykh Hurr, Wasa’ilu ‘sh-Shi’ah, vol. 18 (Beirut: Dar Ihyai ‘t-Turathi ‘l-Islami, 1391 AH) p.106-107.

General References relevant to the history of Shi‘ism

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

After having a general survey of some of the special references on the history of Shi‘ism, we shall examine the general references for this history. The general references with respect to their subjects are as follows:
1. Tarikh-e ‘Umumi {General History};

2. Zendeginameh-ye Imaman (‘a) {Biography of the Imams (‘a)};

3. Kitab-ha-ye Fitan va Hurub {Books on Revolts and Wars};

4. Kitab-ha-ye Rijal va Tabaqat {Books on Rijal and Classes};

5. Kitab-ha-ye Jughrafiya {Books on Geography};

6. Kitab-ha-ye Akhbar {Books on Narrations};

7. Kitab-ha-ye Nasab {Books on Genealogy};

8. Kitab-ha-ye Hadith {Books on Hadiths};

9. Kitab-ha-ye Milal va Nihal {Books on Nations and Religions}.

1. General History

In this book’s survey of the history of Shi‘ism, the most widely used books are those relating to the general history of the first centuries hijri and the history of the caliphate, such as Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi, Murawwij adh-Dhahab, Tarikh at-Tabari, Al-Kamil fi’t-Tarikh, Al-‘Abr, Al-Imammah wa’s-Siyasah, Tarikh al-Khulafa’, Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah of Ibn Abi’l-Hadid, including even the analytical history research and books written by contemporary writers. Among the general history books, I have used Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi and Murawwij adh-Dhahab extensively.

In these two books, historical events and occurrences have been recorded fairly impartially and without any attempt at concealing the truth. Ya‘qubi has expressed in detail the oppositions of Companions of the Prophet (S) with the caliphate of Abubakr, criticizing the groupings after the demise of the Prophet (S).[1][20]

He has embarked, as far as he could, on mentioning the events relevant to the history of the Shi‘ah such as the government of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a),[2][21] the peace treaty of Imam al-Hasan (‘a),[3][22] the martyrdom of Hujr ibn al-‘Addi,[4][23] ‘Amru ibn Hamq[5][24] and that of Imam al-Husayn (‘a),[6][25] more or less presenteing the truth of the matter.

Mas‘udi is also among the historians who had no intention of concealing the truth. Although he has only dealt in passing with the event of Saqifah in the books Murawwij adh-Dhahab and At-Tanbiyyah wa’l-Ashraf, he nevertheless has mentioned the differences of the Companions and the Banu Hashim’s refusal to pay allegiance to Abubakr.[7][26]

In another part of the first book, Mas‘udi wrote the issue of Fadak[8][27] and discussed in detail the events that took place during the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) and the martyrdom of Imam al-Hasan (‘a).[9][28]

He has mentioned the names of the Shi‘ah and their tribes as well as the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) in various parts of Murawwij adh-Dhahab.[10][29] Also, in the years of the Holy Imams’ (‘a) demise, he has given a short account of their lives.[11][30] He has, in particular, detailed the uprisings of the ‘Alawis during the 2nd century hijri.[12][31]

2. Biography of the Imams

Among the books relevant to the life accounts of the Imams (‘a), the book, Al-Irshad, by Shaykh al-Mufid and Tadhkirah al-Khawas by Ibn al-Jawzi occupy (special) importance. Al-Irshad is the first and most important available Shi‘ah reference authority on the life account of the twelve Imams (‘a).

In view of the fact that part of ‘Ali’s (‘a) life overlapped that of the life of the Prophet (S), the life account and conduct {sirah} of the Prophet (S) has also been included in this book, especially his battles in all of which ‘Ali (‘a) had been present, with the exception of the Tabuk expedition. Concerning the book, it is enough to say that no researcher on the history of Shi‘ism and the biography of the infallible Imams (‘a) is needless of it.

The Tadhrikah al-Khawas of Ibn al-Jawzi occupies special importance in the sense that the biography of the Shi‘ah Imams (‘a) has been expressed through the language of a Hanafi and non-Shi‘ah person, but no sort of negligence of the truth and concealment of the reality has taken place.

3. Books on Revolts and Wars

These references deal particularly with the wars that have great importance in the historiography of Muslims. The Waq‘ah as-Siffin of Nasr ibn Mazahim al-Munqari (born 212 AH), which deals with the event and confrontation at Siffin, can be regarded as the oldest among them.

This book contains valuable information regarding the correspondence between ‘Ali (‘a) and Mu‘awiyah as well as the various sermons and speeches of the former. Valuable information concerning the opinion of the Companions of the Prophet (S) regarding ‘Ali and the influence of Shi‘ism among the different tribes can be acquired from the different parts of the book.

The book, Al-Gharat, written by Ibrahim Thaqafi al-Kufi (283 AH), is one of the other references written about this subject. This book is related to the events that occurred during the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), and examines the plunders and pillages committed by Mu‘awiyah’s agents in the realm of ‘Ali’s (‘a) government. The conditions and situations of the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) Shi‘ah can be extracted from various sections of the book.

Al-Jamal or Nusrah al-Jamal of Shaykh al-Mufid, which examines the event of the Battle of Jamal (Camel) is yet another valuable references in this regard. As it is about the Commander of the Faithful’s (‘a) first battle during his caliphate, this book illustrates ‘Ali’s (‘a) station among the people of Iraq prior to his arrival there.

4. Books on Rijal and Classes

‘Ilm ar-Rijal is one of the sciences mentioned in relation to the science of hadith. Its utility is in the study of the chain of transmission of hadith through which it deals with the life account and background of the hadith narrators and on the rectification of the Companions of the Prophet (S).

In the Shi‘ah rijal, apart from the Companions of the Prophet (S), the companions of the infallible Imams (‘a) have also been discussed. The science of rijal started in the 2nd century hijri and continues to exist to the present, having acquired perfection with the passage of time.

Some of the most famous and reputable writings of the Ahl as-Sunnah in this context are Al-Isti‘ab fi Ma‘rifah al-Ashab, written by Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr al-Qurtubi (463 AH); Asad al-Ghabah fi Ma‘rifah as-Sahabah, authored by Ibn Athir al-Juzri (630 AH); Tarikh Baghdad, penned by Khatib al-Baghdadi (392-463 AH); and Al-Isabah fi Ma‘rifah as-Sahabah, written by Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani.

Similarly, the most important Shi‘ah rijali books are Ikhtibar Ma‘rifah ar-Rijal, written by Shaykh at-Tusi (385-460 AH); Rijal an-Najasi (Fihrist Asma’ Musannif ash-Shi‘ah) better known as Rijal, Kitab ar-Rijal, and Kitab al-Fihrist of Shaykh at-Tusi (385-460 AH); Rijal al-Burqa, authored by Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khalid al-Burqa (280 AH); Al-Mashaykhah of Shaykh as-Saduq (381 AH).

Ma‘alim al-‘Ulama’ of Ibn Shahr Ashub Mazandarani (488-588 AH); and Rijal Ibn Dawud of Taqi ad-Din Hasan ibn ‘Ali ibn Dawud al-Hilli (647-707 AH). Of course, the science of rijal has acquired greater perfection among the Shi‘ah and has been divided into various branches.

Some books on rijal such as Asad al-Ghabah, Fihrist Shaykh, Rijal an-Najashi, and Ma‘alim al-‘Ulama’ have been written in (Arabic) alphabetical order while some others such as Rijal Shaykh and Rijal al-Burqa have been arranged according to the classes of the Companions of the Prophet (S) and the Imams (‘a).

There are other types of rijal books in which the people are surveyed according to various classifications, and the most important of them is the Tabaqat of Ibn Sa‘d.

5. Books on Geography

Some of the geography books are travelogues most of which have been written after the third century hijri. Since in this book the history of Shi‘ism has been examined in the first three centuries hijri, a number of them have not been used so much, but other geography books which have presented documents are among the references used in this research.

Among them, Mu‘jam al-Buldan has been used most on account of its comprehensiveness. The writer of the book, Yaqut al-Hamawi, has treated the Shi‘ah with bias; mentioning the names of the great families in Kufah, he has failed to mention any of the names of the great Shi‘ah scholars and families.
6. Books on Narrations

What is meant by references and books on narrations {akhbar} is not the books on hadith that dealt on the lawful {halal} and the prohibited {haram}. They referred instead to history books based on the method of writing history during the period of Islam in which historical events and news have been mentioned in narrative form with the inclusion of the chain of narrators; that is, following the method of the people of hadith in recording and narrating historical events.

This kind of history writing has some salient features. Firstly, any set of news regarding isolated event is mentioned distinct from other events, and it is by itself complete without any link with other news and events. Secondly, literary characteristics can also be observed in it; that is, sometimes the writer makes use of poem, story and debate.

In most cases, this feature can be seen particularly in narrative works which were influenced by the form of Ayyam al-‘Arab narrations. On account of this, some researchers have regarded the historiography of khabar {news, report, narration} to have originated from the khabar of the stories about the period prior to the advent of Islam.

Thirdly, the chain of narrators is mentioned. In reality, this method of history writing, particularly during the first two centuries hijri, was in most cases the way of presenting the primary sources of history. Significant corpus of the written works of the Islamic period is through this method.

Among the books on narrations {akhbar}, Al-Akhbar al-Mu’affaqiyyat of Zubayr ibn Bakkar occupies special importance. The writer of this book, Zubayr ibn Bakkar, apart from being among the descendants of Zubayr who had ancient hostility to the Ahl al-Bayt of the Prophet (S), had good relations with Mutawakkil, the ‘Abbasid caliph, who was a staunch enemy of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) and his descendants; the teacher of his children[13][32] and had been appointed as the judge in Mecca.[14][33] In spite of this, valuable information regarding the Companions of the Prophet’s (S) protest against the caliphate of Abubakr has been recorded in this book. The narration of their poems, in particular, which contain their belief on the guardianship {wasayah} of ‘Ali (‘a), is an expression of these protests.

7. Books on Genealogy

Among the books on genealogy, Ansab al-Ashraf of Baladhuri, which is the best reference in this regard, has been used most. On the other hand, this book can be considered as among the books on (personal) backgrounds {ahwal}.

This is in spite of the fact that in terms of genealogical knowledge, the book Jumharah Ansab al-‘Arab is the most comprehensive book, which has also presented a brief explanation of the description of some individuals.

The book, Muntaqilah at-Talibiyyin, has examined the migration of sadat (sing. sayyid) and descendants of the Prophet (S). By utilizing its subjects, the trend of Shi‘ism during the first centuries hijri in the Muslim lands can be examined.

8. Books on Hadith

Another set of the references on the history of Shi‘ism includes the books on hadith. Hadith in the Sunni usage refers to the Prophet’s (S) sayings, actions and tacit approvals of others’ actions, but the Shi‘ah regards the infallible Imams (‘a) as also attached to the Prophet (S), treating their sayings, actions and tacit approvals as proofs {hujaj} as well.

The hadith books of the Ahl as-Sunnah such as As-Sahih of al-Bukhari (194-256 AH), Al-Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (164-241 AH), and Al-Mustadrak ‘ala’s-Sahihayn of Hakim an-Nayshaburi (d. 450 AH) are good references for the study of Shi‘ism among the Companions and of the rightfulness of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) which is the basis of Shi‘ism.

The Shi‘ah books on hadith such as the “four books” {kutub al-arba‘ah}, viz. Al-Kafi of al-Kulayni (d. 329 AH); Man La Yahdhuruh al-Faqih of Shaykh as-Saduq (d. 381 AH); and Tahdhib al-Ahkam and Al-Istibsar of Shaykh at-Tusi (d. 360 AH).

And other books such as Al-Amali, Ghurar al-Fawa’id and Durar al-Qala’id of Sayyid Murtada (355-436 AH); Al-Ihtijaj of at-Tabarsi (6th century hijri); and the bulky encyclopedia of hadith, Bihar al-Anwar of ‘Allamah Majlisi (d. 1111 AH), apart from having the merit of the books of the Ahl as-Sunnah, can be utilized, by referring to the hadiths of the infallible Imams (‘a), in knowing about the scattering of the Shi‘ah, their resident places, their social relations, and their mode of communication with the infallible Imams (‘a).

9. Books on Nations and Religions

One of the most important references and authorities in this regard is the book, Al-Milal wa’n-Nihal of Shahristani (479-548 AH). In terms of comprehensiveness and oldness, this book is considered a good reference and as a reference authority of researchers and scholars.

This is in spite of the fact that the author has approached the subject with bias. In the beginning of the book, he has quoted the hadith on “73 sects” and introduced the Ahl as-Sunnah as the “saved sect”. As such, he tried his best to highlight the spread of “Shi‘ah sects” so as to prove that the plentitude of the “Shi‘ah sects” is a proof of the falsehood of this school of thought {madhhab}.

He has regarded the sects such as Mukhtariyyah, Baqiriyyah, Ja‘fariyyah, Mufdhalah, Nu‘maniyyah, Hishamiyyah, and Yunusiyyah as “Shi‘ah” although these sects do not exist in reality. Similarly, in the book, Khutat, Maqrizi has said that the “Shi‘ah sects” are 300 all in all, but at the time of enumerating them he failed to mention more than 20 sects.

Among the oldest and most important books on nations and religions are Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq of Ash‘ari al-Qummi and Firaq ash-Shi‘ah of Nawbakhti. Ash‘ari al-Qummi and Nawbakhti are among the Shi‘ah scholars who lived in the second half of the 3rd century hijri. The book, Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq, in terms of presenting information, is so extensive and has good comprehensiveness, but its subjects are diverse with any proper classification.

According to the views expressed by some researchers, the book, Firaq ash-Shi‘ah of Nawbakhti is actually the same book as Al-Maqalat wa’l-Firaq.

Summary

General references for the history of Shi‘ism are the following:

o Books on general history, which have been written in the first centuries hijri, and among them Murawwij adh-Dhahab and Tarikh al-Ya‘qubi, occupy special importance;

o Books on the biography of the Imams (‘a) such as Al-Irshad of Shaykh al-Mufid;

o Books on revolts and wars such as Waq‘ah as-Siffin;

o Books on rijal and classes as well as books written about (personal) backgrounds {ahwal};

o Books on geography such as travelogues and history of cities;

o Books on narrations which have been the same in form with the first history writing;

o Books on genealogy such as Jumharah Ansab al-‘Arab;

Shi‘ah in the Lexicon and the Holy Qur’an

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

The word “Shi‘ah” in the lexicon is derived from the root-word شيع {shaya‘a} which means escorting {mushayi‘ah}, victory and bravery {shuja‘ah}.[15][34] It is equally applied to the followers and supporters as it is usually applied to the followers and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a).[16][35] As Azhari has said, “Shi‘ah refers to a group that loves the progeny {‘itrah} and descendants of the Prophet (S).”[17][36]
Ibn al-Khaldun says: Be aware that ‘Shi‘ah’ in the lexicon means ‘followers’ and ‘supporters’, and in the parlance of the past and present jurists {fiqh} and scholastic theologians {mutakallimun}, it is applied to the followers of ‘Ali and his descendants.[18][37]

But Shahristani limits the definitional scope of the word ‘Shi‘ah’, saying: ‘Shi‘ah’ is referring to those who follow ‘Ali alone and believe in his Imamate {imamah} and caliphate {khilafah} to be based on revelation {nass}, and they say: ‘Imamate shall not bypass him except {that it is done} through injustice {zulm}’.[19][38]

There are also many cases in the Qur’an in which “Shi‘ah” connotes “followers” and “supporters” such as:

وَإِنَّ مِنْ شِيعَتِهِ لإبْرَاهِيمَ

“Indeed Abraham was among his followers {shi‘ah}”[20][39]

and the verse,

فَاسْتَغَاثَهُ الَّذِي مِنْ شِيعَتِهِ عَلَى الَّذِي مِنْ عَدُوِّهِ

“The one who was from his (Moses’) followers {shi‘ah} sought his help against him who was from his enemies.”[21][40]

The word “Shi‘ah” has also been mentioned in the Prophetic traditions to mean “followers and friends of ‘Ali (‘a)”.[22][41]

“Shi‘ah” in the Shi‘ah references does not have more than one meaning and conception and that is belief in the succession of ‘Ali (‘a) and his eleven descendants in which no change has ever taken place since the demise of the Prophet (S) up to the minor occultation {ghaybah as-sughra}. Just as the Shi‘ah of the second half of the third century hijri believed in all the twelve Imams (‘a), the pioneering Shi‘ah among the Companions of the Prophet (S) also believed in this affair because they had been informed of the names of these Imams from the Prophetic traditions.[23][42]

Although many of the Shi‘ah had no access to these traditions due to the atmosphere of strangulation maintained by the tyrant rulers, what was obligatory (for them) was to recognize the Imam of their respective times. As the Holy Prophet (S) said, “He who will die without recognizing the Imam of his time dies in a state of ignorance {jahiliyyah}.”[24][43]

As such, we can see that when Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) attained martyrdom, Zurarah who was an old man sent his son, ‘Ubayd, to inquire about the successor of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a). But before ‘Ubayd was able to return to Kufah, Zurarah, who was about to die, took hold of a copy of the Qur’an and said: “O God! Be my witness that I testify to the Imamate {imamah} of the one who has been designated in this Qur’an.”[25][44]

Of course, with the passage of time, the meaning and concept of Shi‘ah assumes an explicit form and its scope is determined. Thus, the infallible Imams (‘a) have regarded those who are identified with the false sects and faiths as outside Shi‘ah circles, as Shaykh at-Tusi narrates from Hamran ibn A‘in: I asked Imam al-Baqir (‘a): “Am I really among your Shi‘ah?” The Imam (‘a) replied: “Yes, you are among our Shi‘ah in this world and in the hereafter, and the names of the Shi‘ah and their fathers are written for us. Why, are there those who turn their back to us?” I replied: “May I be your ransom! Is it possible for somebody to be your Shi‘ah and to have knowledge of your being in truth, and then to turn his back from you?” The Imam (‘a) said: “Yes, O Hamran! You will not perceive them.”

Hamzah az-Zayyat, who is one of the narrators of this hadith, thus says: Concerning this hadith we made a discussion and we were not able to understand the purport of the Imam (‘a). As such, I wrote a letter to Imam ar-Rida (‘a) and I asked him (‘a) (about this). The Imam (‘a) said: “Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) was referring to the Waqifiyyah (a deviant sect).”[26][45]

It is for this reason that in the parlance of the Shi‘ah rijal writers, the title Shi‘ah is only applied to the Shi‘ah believing in the twelve Imams (‘a) and in the language of the jurists {fuqaha}, they are sometimes described as “our companions” {ashabuna} or “our Imami companions” {ashabuna al-imamiyyah}.

And those who had inclined toward the deviant sects and drifted away from the course of Shi‘ism have described with such labels as Fathi, Waqifi, Nawusi, etc. and if ever the names of some of them are mentioned in the Shi‘ah books on rijal, the reason is that they had narrated these traditions prior to their deviation, just as the names of a number of Sunni narrators who have narrated from the infallible Imams (‘a) have been mentioned in these books.

The Sunni scholars and rijal writers, however, have used the word Shi‘ah in broader sense and they have applied it to all the sects that have separated from the body of Shi‘ism and even to the ghulat as well.

In addition, they also refer to those who love and admire the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) as “Shi‘ah”. This is while some of these people do not have any sort of belief in the infallibility {‘ismah} and Imamate {imamah} of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a), such as Sufyan ath-Thawri, a rector {mufti} in Iraq who issued edicts {fatawa} based on the Ahl as-Sunnah, but Ibn al-Qutaybah has enlisted him along with the Shi‘ah.[27][46] Regarding ash-Shafi‘i, who is the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of thought {madhahib}, Ibn Nadim thus says:

كَانَ الشَّافِعِي شَدِيْداً في التَّشَيُّع

“Ash-Shafi‘i had extreme Shi‘ism {tashayyu‘}.”[28][47]

Of course, during the second and third centuries hijri, besides the Shi‘ah Imami, the Zaydis constituted the greatest number of Shi‘ah. They were “Shi‘ah” more in the political sense than in ideology because, in terms of jurisprudence {fiqh}, they were not followers of the Ja‘fari fiqh; rather they were followers of the Hanafi fiqh.[29][48]

From the viewpoint of the ideological principles also, as narrated by Shahristani, “For sometime, Zayd was a student of Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, the founder of the Mu‘tazilah (Mu‘tazilite) madhhab and has learned from him the principles of the Mu‘tazilah madhhab.”

Therefore, the Zaydis are Mu‘tazilites in principles {usul}. It is for this reason that they used to regard as permissible {jayiz} the Imamate {imamah} of a deserving person {mafdhul} in the existence of the more deserving person {afdhal} and in that they do not disrespect the two sheikhs {shaykhayn} (Abubakr and ‘Umar).[30][49] And in terms of beliefs, they are closer to the Ahl as-Sunnah, as Ibn al-Qutaybah thus says: “Among the rafidhi (Shi‘ah) sects, the Zaydis have the least extremism {ghulu}.”[31][50]

It was for this reason that the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah—one of the Zaydi leaders—was praised by some jurists {fuqaha} of the Ahl as-Sunnah, and as narrated by Waqidi, Abubakr ibn Sirah,[32][51] Ibn ‘Ajlan,[33][52] and ‘Abd Allah ibn Ja‘far[34][53]—who were among the great hadith scholars {muhaddithun} of the Medina school {maktab} and from whom Waqidi himself has narrated hadith—were involved in the uprising of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah. Also, Shahristani says: “Abu Hanifah was among the followers of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah.”[35][54]

The Mu‘tazilites of Basrah also agreed with the uprising of Muhammad and based on Abu’l-Faraj al-Isfahani’s narration, “A group of the Mu‘tazilites in Basrah such as Wasil ibn ‘Ata’ and ‘Amru ibn ‘Ubayd have paid allegiance to him.”[36][55]

As such, the Zaydis can be regarded as Shi‘ah only from the political viewpoint although they believe in the superiority of the descendants of Fatimah (‘a).

Summary

Shi‘ah, according to the lexicon, refers to the followers and supporters of ‘Ali (‘a). In the Shi‘ah references, “Shi‘ah” does not have more than one meaning and that is belief in the succession of ‘Ali (‘a) and his eleven descendants.

The infallible Imams used to consider those who were identified with the deviant sects as outside the circle of Shi‘ism, but the Sunni scholars and rijal writers have used the word Shi‘ah in broader sense and they have applied it to all the sects that have separated from the body of Shi‘ism as well as to the admirers of the descendants of the Prophet (S). Of course, during the second and third centuries hijri, next to the Shi‘ah Imami, the Zaydis had been regarded by them to have constituted the greatest number of Shi‘ah.

The Origin of Shi‘ism

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

Diverse views have been expressed with respect to the origin and beginning of Shi‘ism, but in general, these views can be divided into two:

1. The writers and researchers who believe Shi‘ism was created after the demise of the Prophet (S) and who themselves can be subdivided into the following subgroups:

a. Those who believe that Shi‘ism has come into being during the day of Saqifah—that day when a group of prominent Companions explicitly said: “‘Ali is the most deserving one to the office of Imamate {imamah} and caliphate {khilafah}.”[37][56]

b. Those who regard the emergence of the Shi‘ah as being related to the latter part of Uthman’s caliphate, connecting the spread of the views of ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ at this period with the beginning of Shi‘ism.[38][57]

c. Those who believe that the Shi‘ah has come into being on the day of Fitnah ad-Dar (the day when the third caliph was murdered). Thereafter, accordingly, the followers of ‘Ali (‘a) who were the very Shi‘ah who confronted the so-called “‘Uthmanis”, those who were avenging the murder of ‘Uthman. As Ibn an-Nadim thus writes:

When Talhah and Zubayr opposed ‘Ali and nothing could convince them but to take revenge for the murder of ‘Uthman, while ‘Ali also wanted to fight them so as to establish the truth, on that day those who followed him were called “Shi‘ah” and he himself thus described them: “They are my Shi‘ah”.[39][58]

Ibn ‘Abd ar-Rabbih al-Andalusi also says: “The Shi‘ah are those who regarded ‘Ali as superior to ‘Uthman.”[40][59]

d. Those who believe that Shi‘ism had come into existence from the coming into power, up to the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a).[41][60]

e. Those who link the origin of Shi‘ism with the event at Karbala’ and the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a).[42][61]

2. The researchers who are of the opinion that Shi‘ism can be traced back to the period of the Messenger of Allah (‘a). Apart from all the Shi‘ah ‘ulama’,[43][62] some of the Sunni scholars also hold such a belief, just as Muhammad Kird-‘Ali—one of the distinguished Sunni ‘ulama’—says: “A number of the Companions during the time of the Holy Prophet (S) were known as Shi‘ah of ‘Ali.”[44][63]

Keeping in view of the opinions presented so far, it can be said that the event of Saqifah, the latter part of the caliphate of ‘Uthman, the Battle of Jamal (Camel), the rule of ‘Ali (‘a), and the events at Karbala’ are phases of the events that have influenced the history of Shi‘ism.

Although the existence of a person named ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ is doubtful, the formation of Shi‘ism at these stages seems incorrect because studying the Prophetic traditions, we find that the term “Shi‘ah”, has been applied by the Messenger of Allah, Muhammad al-Mustafa (S), to the sympathizers of ‘Ali (‘a) before all these events, as recorded in many hadiths, some of which we shall cite below.

All these hadiths are accepted by the Ahl as-Sunnah as authentic and have been recorded in their hadith references. Take, for example, the hadiths which have been recorded by Suyuti—one of the Sunni exegetes {mufassirun} of the Qur’an—from the Holy Prophet (S) on the commentary of the verse:

إِنَّ الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ أُولَئِكَ هُمْ خَيْرُ الْبَرِيَّةِ

“Indeed those who have faith and do righteous deeds—it is they who are the best of creatures.”[45][64]

Among them is this hadith of the Prophet (S) when he said:

والّذي نفسي بيده إنّ هذا و شيعته لهم الفائزون يوم القيامة

“By He in Whose hand my life is! Verily, this man (‘Ali) and his Shi‘ah shall secure deliverance on the Day of Resurrection.”[46][65]

The Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a): “God has forgiven the sins of your Shi‘ah and the followers of your Shi‘ah.”[47][66]

The Prophet (S) also said to ‘Ali (‘a): “You and your Shi‘ah will meet (on the Day of Resurrection) at the Pool {hawdh} of Kawthar while having drank from it and having bright faces, whereas your enemies will meet me while they are thirsty and enchained.”[48][67]

In a long hadith regarding the virtues of ‘Ali (‘a), the Holy Prophet (S) thus says to his daughter Fatimah (‘a): “O Fatimah! ‘Ali and his Shi‘ah are the saved ones of tomorrow.”[49][68]

Similarly, the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “O ‘Ali! Your sins as well as that of your progeny, your Shi‘ah and the followers of your Shi‘ah have been forgiven…”[50][69]

Again, the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “O ‘Ali! During the Day of Resurrection, I shall cling to God while you shall hold fast to me; your descendants shall hold fast to you; and the Shi‘ah of your descendants shall hold fast to them.”[51][70]

The Prophet (S) again said to ‘Ali (‘a): “In the hereafter, of all the people, you are the nearest one to me… and the Shi‘ah are on pulpits on light…”[52][71]

Ibn al-‘Abbas narrated that Jibra’il (Archangel Gabriel) (‘a) gave the news that ‘Ali (‘a) and the Shi‘ah shall be brought to Paradise along with Muhammad (S).”[53][72]

Salman al-Farsi narrates that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a):

O ‘Ali! Put a ring on your right hand so as to be with the nearest ones {muqarrabin}.” ‘Ali (‘a) asked: “Who are the nearest ones?” He (S) replied: “Jibra’il and Mika’il.” ‘Ali (‘a) again asked: “Which kind of ring shall I put on?” He (S) replied: “A ring whose stone is a red ‘aqiq because ‘aqiq is a testimony that one has acknowledged and accepted the divine servitude {‘ubudiyyah}, my prophethood {nubuwwah}, your guardianship {wisayah}, and your descendants’ Imamate {imamah}. Your followers are people of Paradise and the abode of your Shi‘ah is the Garden of Firdaws {jannah al-firdaws}.[54][73]

The Most Noble Messenger (S) again said: “Eighty thousand from my ummah shall be admitted to Paradise without reckoning.” ‘Ali (‘a) asked: “Who are they?” He (S) replied: “They are your Shi‘ah and you are their Imam.”[55][74]

Anas ibn Malik thus narrates from the Holy Prophet (S):

Jibra’il said to me: “God, the Exalted, loves ‘Ali to such a degree that is not expressed to any angel. Just as the tasbihs {glorifications to Allah} that are being uttered, God creates angels to seek forgiveness for the admirers and Shi‘ah of ‘Ali till the Day of Resurrection.”[56][75]

Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari narrates that the Prophet (S) said: “By God Who sent me in truth as the Prophet! The angels are regularly seeking forgiveness for ‘Ali and they pity him and his Shi‘ah as a father does (with respect to his child).”[57][76]

‘Ali (‘a) himself narrates that the Prophet (S) said: “O ‘Ali! Give glad tidings to your Shi‘ah that I am {their} intercessor {shafi‘} on the Day of Resurrection—the day when neither wealth nor child is of any benefit except my intercession {shafa‘ah}.”[58][77]

The Holy Prophet (S) said to ‘Ali (‘a): “The first four persons to enter Paradise are I, you, Hasan, and Husayn; our descendants are behind us; our spouses are behind our descendants and our Shi‘ah are on our right and left sides.”[59][78]

Finally, many of the Sunni muhaddithun and historians such as Ibn al-Jawzi, Baladhuri, Shaykh Sulayman al-Qanduzi al-Hanafi, Khwarazmi, and as-Suyuti have narrated that the Messenger of Allah (S) thus said while addressing ‘Ali (‘a): “Verily, this man (‘Ali) and his Shi‘ah shall secure deliverance on the Day of Resurrection.”[60][79]

There are even recorded traditions from the Most Noble Messenger (S) about some of the Shi‘ah and what is interesting here is that these have been narrated by the opponents of the Shi‘ah! For example, there is a tradition about Hujr ibn ‘Adi al-Kindi which has been narrated by ‘A’ishah. When Mu‘awiyah performed Hajj after killing Hujr and his companions and came to Medina, ‘A’ishah said to him:
O Mu‘awiyah! Where was your forbearance at the time of killing Hujr and his companions? Be aware that I heard that the Messenger of Allah (S) said: “There is a group that shall be killed in a place called Marj ‘Adhra’ for which Allah and the inhabitants of heaven will be filled with wrath.”[61][80]

Since these hadiths are undeniable and have been narrated by prominent Sunni muhaddithun, some Sunni writers have resorted to unjust interpretation of them. For instance, Ibn Abi’l-Hadid says: What is meant by the Shi‘ah in many hadiths who have been given the glad tidings of Paradise are those who believe in the superiority and preeminence of ‘Ali (‘a) over others. For this reason, our Mu‘tazilite ‘ulama’ have thus written in their books and treatises, “We are truly the Shi‘ah” and this statement is nearer to reality and more akin to truth.[62][81]

Also, in the book, As-Sawa‘iq al-Mahriqah fi’r-Radd ‘ala Ahl al-Bid‘a waz-Zindiqah, which is a book rejecting the Shi‘ah creeds and beliefs, while quoting this hadiths, Haythami has said: What is meant by the Shi‘ah in these hadiths are the Shi‘ah that no longer exist. It refers to progeny and followers of ‘Ali who are neither afflicted with innovation {bid‘ah} nor curse and abuse the Companions of the Prophet (S).[63][82]

In reply to him, the late Muzaffar says: It is strange that Ibn Hajar imagined that what is meant here by the Shi‘ah are the Ahl as-Sunnah! And I do not know if the reason behind this is the similarity of “Shi‘ah” and “Sunni”. Or, it is because these two sects are identical. Or, it is for the reason that the Ahl as-Sunnah follow and love the family of the Prophet (S) more than the Shi‘ah do![64][83]

The late Kashif al-Ghita’ also says: “By applying the term “Shi‘ah” to the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a), its purport can be understood because other than this group, there is no other Shi‘ah.”[65][84]

The existence of the term “Shi‘ah” in the hadiths and sayings of the Prophet (S) is clear and indisputable, and with these (unjust) interpretations, they wanted to conceal the truth but in the end they have deceived nobody but themselves. This is particularly true in view of the fact that the connotations of “Shi‘ah” has been clarified during the time of the Prophet (S) and a number of the Companions were known at the time as “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali”.[66][85]

The Companions of the Prophet (S) also referred to ‘Ali’s (‘a) followers as “Shi‘ah”. Hashim Marqal thus writes concerning a person named “Mahal ibn al-Khalifah at-Ta’i”: “O Commander of the Faithful! He is among your Shi‘ah.”[67][86]

The Shi‘ah themselves used to call one another as Shi‘ah. As Shaykh al-Mufid narrates, some people came to ‘Ali (‘a) and said: “O Commander of the Faithful! We are among your Shi‘ah.” He (‘a) in turn said: “The faces of my Shi‘ah turn pale on account of night vigil and their eyes weak due to weeping…”[68][87]

In many instances, Hadrat[69][88] ‘Ali (‘a) himself, as in the abovementioned case, used to apply the word “Shi‘ah” to his followers. For example, when he heard the news of martyrdom of some of his Shi‘ah in Basrah at the hand of Talhah and Zubayr, he (‘a) cursed the two and said: “O God! They have killed my Shi‘ah. Kill them too.”[70][89]

Even the opponents of ‘Ali (‘a) used to refer to his followers as “Shi‘ah”, just as what ‘A’ishah, Talhah and Zubayr said during their conversation about their route from Mecca to Iraq: “We shall go to Basrah and expel the governor {amil} of ‘Ali and kill his Shi‘ah.”[71][90]

In any case, the truth of Shi‘ism, which is the same love and fellowship to ‘Ali (‘a) and to regard him as superior (to others), is related to the time of the Prophet (S). He (S) used to enjoin the people in his speeches to follow ‘Ali and his family as exemplified by the event in Ghadir Khumm. As Ibn Abi’l-Hadid says: “This report {akhbar} has been narrated by muhaddithun none of whom has been accused of rafdh and Shi‘ism {tashayyu‘} and they have not even believed in the superiority and preeminence of ‘Ali (‘a) over others.”[72][91]

Now, we shall quote some of these hadiths. Buraydah Aslami says:

The Messenger of Allah (S) said: “God, the Exalted, has ordered me to love four persons and said to me that He also loves them.” They asked: “O Messenger of Allah! Tell their names.” He (S) said thrice: “‘Ali and then Abu Dharr, Miqdad and Salman.”[73][92]

At-Tabari narrates that in the course of the Battle of Uhud, the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “‘Ali is from me and I from him.”[74][93]

It has thus been narrated on the authority of Umm Salmah: “When the Messenger of Allah (S) was angry, no one could dare to speak except ‘Ali.”[75][94]

Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqas narrated that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “He who loves ‘Ali loves me and he who loves me loves God. Also, he who is hostile to ‘Ali is hostile to me, and he who is hostile to me is hostile to God.”[76][95]

Ibn al-Jawzi narrated that the Holy Prophet of Islam (S) said: “O ‘Ali! You are the separator of heaven and hell. And you shall open the door of heaven and enter it without any reckoning.”[77][96]

Khwarazmi narrated in Al-Manaqib on the authority of Ibn al-‘Abbas that the Holy Prophet (S) said:

When I was brought to the heavenly ascension {mi‘raj}, I saw that it is thus written on the gate of heaven:

لا الٰه الاّ الله، محمّد رسول الله، علىّ حبيب الله، الحسن والحسين صفوة الله، فاطمة امة الله، على مبغضهم لعنة الله

La ilaha illallah, Muhammadan Rasulullah, ‘Aliyyun Habib Allah Al-Hasan wa’l-Husayn Sifwat Allah, Fatimah Ummat Allah, ‘ala mabghadhuhum la‘nat Allah.[78][97]

Zubayr ibn Bakkar—who is among the grandchildren of Zubayr and known for deviation from the Commander of the Faithful (‘a)—has narrated that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “I enjoin anyone who believe in God and confirm my apostleship {risalah} to love ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and recognize his guardianship {wilayah}. He who loves him loves me and he who loves me loves God.”[79][98]

Ibn Abi’l-Hadid narrates on the authority of Zayd ibn al-Arqam that the Most Noble Messenger (S) said: “I shall guide you to something which if it would be known to you, you shall never go astray. Your guardian {wali} and Imam is ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. Acknowledge him as Jibra’il thus informed me of it.”

After narrating this hadith, Ibn Abi’l-Hadid thus says: If they would say, “This is an explicit proof for (Imam ‘Ali’s) Imamate {imamah},” how will then the Mu‘tazilites solve this problem? In reply, we say: It is possible that the Prophet means that ‘Ali is their Imam in religious edicts {fatawa} and laws {ahkam} and not in caliphate {khilafah}.

Similarly, what we quoted in the explanation of the statements of the great and leading Mu‘tazilite figures of Baghdad can be the answer, the gist of which is as follows: The Imamate and caliphate belonged to ‘Ali with the condition that he would show inclination to it and fight others for it. As he relinquished it to somebody and kept silent, we do accept the guardianship {wilayah} of the other person and believe in the legitimacy of his caliphate.

As the Commander of the Faithful did not raise any opposition against the three caliphs, did not unsheathe his sword and call on the people against the three, it follows then that he has approved their caliphates. It is based on this that we do accept them and believe in their purity, goodness and righteousness. If he would have waged war against them and called on the people to fight them, we would then believe in their transgression, deviation and misguidance.[80][99]
Lesson 4: Summary

Some writers regard Shi‘ism to have emerged on the day of Saqifah while others regard the same to be on the latter part of ‘Uthman ibn al-‘Affan’s caliphate. The third group believe that Shi‘ism came into being after the murder of ‘Uthman while the fourth group say that it has come into existence after the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a). The fifth group is of the opinion that Shi‘ism originated after the event in Karbala’.

Apart from the Shi‘ah ‘ulama’ as a whole, some Sunni scholars such as Muhammad Kird-‘Ali maintain that the root of emergence of Shi‘ism is during the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah (S) and it was the Prophet (S) who first applied the term “Shi‘ah” to the comrades of ‘Ali (‘a).
A number of Companions of the Prophet (S) were also known during that time as “Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a)”.
In addition to this, Shi‘ism is the same love and fellowship to ‘Ali (‘a) to which the Prophet (S) had enjoined his Companions on many occasions.

The Message of Shi'ism

The message of Shi'ism to the world can be summarized in one sentence: "To know God." Or in other words, it is to instruct man to follow the path of Divine realization and the knowledge of God in order to gain felicity and salvation. And this message is contained in the very phrase with which the Holy Prophet commenced his prophetic mission when he said: "Oh men ! Know God in His Oneness (and acknowledge Him) so that you will gain salvation."

As a summary explanation of this message we will add that man is attached by nature to many goals in this worldly life and to material pleasures. He loves tasty food and drink, fashionable dress, attractive palaces and surroundings, a beautiful and pleasuring wife, sincere friends and great wealth. And in another direction he is attracted to political power, position, reputation, the extension of his rule and dominion and the destruction of anything that is opposed to his wishes. But in his inner and primordial, God-given nature man understands that all these are means created for man, but man is not created for all these things. These things should be subservient to man and follow him and not vice versa. To consider the stomach and the region below it as a final end of life is the logic of cattle and sheep. To tear up, cut and destroy other is the logic of the tiger, the wolf and the fox. The logic inherent in human existence is the attainment of wisdom and nothing else.

This logic based upon wisdom with the power which it possesses to discern between reality and the unreal, guides us toward the truth and not toward things our emotions demand or toward passions, selfishness and egoism. This logic considers man as a part of the totality of creation without any separate independence or the possibility of a rebellious self-centeredness. In contrast to the current belief that man is the master of creation and tames rebellious nature and conquers it to force it to obey his wishes and desires, we find that in reality man himself is an instrument in the hand of Universal Nature and is ruled and commanded by it.

This logic based upon wisdom invites man to concentrate more closely upon the apprehension he has of the existence of this world until it becomes clear to him that the world of existence and all that is in it does not issue from itself but rather from an Infinite Source. He will then know that all he beauty and ugliness, all these creatures of the earth and the heavens, which appear outwardly as independent realities, gain reality only through another Reality and are manifested only in Its Light, not by themselves and through themselves. In the same way that the "realities" of today no more than vaguely remembered dreams in relation to what will appear as "reality" tomorrow. In the last analysis, everything in itself is no more than a tale and a dream. Only God is Reality in the absolute sense, the One Who does not perish. Under the protection of His Being, everything gains existence and becomes manifested through the Light of His Essence.

If man becomes endowed with such vision and power of apprehension, then the tent of his separative existence will fall down before his eyes like a bubble on the surface of water. He will see with his eyes that the world and all that is in it depend upon an Infinite Being who possesses life, power, knowledge and every perfection to an infinite degree. Man and every other being in the world are like so many windows which display according to their capacity the world of eternity which transcends them and lies beyond them.

It is at this moment that man takes from himself and all creatures the quality of independence and primacy and returns these qualities to their Owner. He detaches himself from all things to attach himself solely to the One God. Before His Majesty and Grandeur he does nothing but bow in humility. Only then does he become guided and directed by God so that whatever he knows he knows in God. Through Divine guidance he becomes adorned with moral and spiritual virtue and pure actions which are the same as Islam itself, the submission to God, the religion that is in the primordial nature of things.

This is the highest degree of human perfection and the station of the perfect man (the Universal Man; insan-i kamil), namely the Imam who has reached this rank through Divine grace. Furthermore, those who have reached this station through the practice of spiritual methods, with the different ranks and stations that they possess, are the true followers of the Imam. It becomes thus clear that the knowledge of God and of the Imam are inseparable in the same way that the knowledge of God is inextricably connected to the knowledge of oneself. For he who knows his own symbolic existence has already come to know the true existence which belongs solely to God who is independent and without need of anything whatsoever.

The Relation of the Shi‘a with the Mu‘tazilah

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: For what reason have the principles of religion been divided into five principles? Has the link of the Shi‘a with the Mu‘tazilah played any role in that?

ANSWER: The Shi‘a have conducted discussions and debates about Islamic issues with all sects, as mentioned in books of kalam (theology) and polemics. However, they have not influenced it with regard to any issues of creed. As we have mentioned numerous times, the Shi‘a school of thought is an original Islamic school of thought, though the remaining sects appeared afterwards.

The beliefs of the Shi‘a are not limited to these five principles, but rather comprise many other issues as well. Of course, in one exposition, the Islamic beliefs can be summarized into tawhid (Divine unity), nubuwwah (prophecy), and ma`ad (resurrection), or in tawhid and nubuwwah, since the remaining beliefs, such as Imamah (vicegerency) and resurrection are a part of the issues which the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) preached and informed about. And according to the narrations, faith in the prophecy consists of faith in all that the Prophet conveyed.

Faith in the prophecy consists of faith in all that the Prophet conveyed.

On this basis, these five principles – Divine unity, Divine justice, prophecy, Imamah, and the resurrection – are among the principles in which all Muslims must believe. Reason and revelation also affirm them. Summarizing the beliefs in these five principles is because the Shi‘a regard the issue of Divine justice and the Imamah as important as the remaining principles of belief, but Ahl al-Sunnat – the Ash`ari sect – do not believe in them.

The Shi‘a have taken the Islamic beliefs directly from the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet and Imams (peace be upon them) and have not been influenced by the Mu‘tazilah with respect to any of their beliefs, since the Mu‘tazilah sect came into being afterwards.

If we see that the Mu‘tazilah share the Shi‘a view in some issues, what is proper is that we say that they have taken these views from the Shi‘a Imams either directly or indirectly. The well-known proverb, “Belief in coercion and anthropomorphism is Umayyad and belief in Justice and unity is an Alawi doctrine,” confirms this claim.

In spite of this, some writers who are ignorant of the Shi‘a school of thought and have researched the Mu‘tazili and Ash‘ari sects have assumed the Shi‘a scholars, among them Sayyid Murta¤a, were Mu‘tazili since they found them opposed to some Ash‘ari beliefs.

The Shi‘a and Armed Uprising

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: Is armed uprising one of the conditions of the Imamah of the Imam? Is armed uprising unconditionally and in all situations part of the agenda of the Shi‘a? In other words, must the Shi‘a always be in a state of armed conflict with oppressive systems of government, or are the same conditions relevant here as are mentioned about enjoining good and forbidding evil? Also, what was the role of the Shi‘a in the armed uprisings against the government of Banu Umayyah?

ANSWER: The Shi‘a have no agenda regarding jihad against the infidels except the agenda of Islam, which has been explained in depth on books of jurisprudence, and which many jurisprudents consider obligatory only in case of the presence and call of the Imam.

However, defending the heart of Islam and honor of the Muslims and repelling the enemies’ attacks from the Islamic borders – whether physical, cultural, or economical – is a general obligation. In fact, according to the verse of the Qur’an preparation to defend and guard the physical and cultural borders is a Divine obligation.

“And prepare what strength you are able and trained horses with which you frighten the enemy of Allah and your enemy.”[13]

In the physical battlefield, this is by acquiring military weaponry and in the cultural or economic battlefield by acquiring the provisions peculiar to that arena. In this aspect, the time of the Imam’s presence is no different from the time of his absence.

Just as a Muslim’s house, dependents, property, and self must be safe from danger and attack by outsiders, “One who is killed defending his possessions is a martyr”[14]

the Islamic homeland as well – which is the home of all – must be free from danger.

This is the gist of the method of dealing with external enemies. As for dealing with internal anti-Islamic events and factors that hypocritically inflict damage on Islam and Muslims on account of seeking power, the positions taken to repel these dangers must be such as are able to remove that anti-Islamic movement.

Of course, in instances where this movement jeopardizes the existence of Islam or threatens the laws of Islam and society’s security and repelling this danger depends on an armed movement, armed uprising becomes obligatory.

In short, in the Shi‘a way of thinking, complacency with respect to opposing and oppressive events is condemned.

A Muslim must give importance to everything that is related to the honor and grandeur of Islam and Muslims and to elevating the word of Allah and must always act according to his duty.

Still, armed uprising is not among the conditions of the Imamah of the Imam as has been attributed to the Zaydi sect. It is not the case that every leader of an armed group, if from the descendants and family of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), is regarded as Imam. And one who apparently had no armed uprising and struggle cannot, for this reason, be declared not to be the Imam, as was the case with Imam Zain al-‘Abidin, Imam Muhamad al-Baqir, and Imam Ja‘far as-Sadiq (peace be upon him). This is because: First, their non-armed policies were more effective than armed uprising in elevating the name of Islam, guarding the truth, and protecting the shari`at in their time.

Second, as has been related in the tradition of Mahmud ibn Labid from Fatimah az-Zahra (peace be upon her): It is the people’s duty to gather round the candle of the Imam’s existence and present themselves to assist him, elevate the name of Islam, and guard the objectives of the religion. In such a situation, the Imam chooses whatever position is appropriate.

Thus, Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him), after the death of ‘Uthman, did not leave the people without an answer when they rushed to him from all directions to pledge allegiance with that commotion and longing. He said: “Lo, I swear by the One who split the seed and created man, were it not for the crowd that had come to me and the establishment of the argument by the presence of supporters, and were it not for the covenant Allah has taken from the `ulama’ (scholars) not to remain silent in face of the waste of the oppressors and hunger of the oppressed, I would have abandoned the ropes of the khilafah and filled its latter part with the cup of its former part. You would then have well understood that your world [with all its attractions] is worth less to me than the water that comes out of a sheep’s nose!”[16]

As for the armed revolts against Banu Umayyah, apart from the rebellions of the Khawarij – none of which reached fruition – the cause and motive of all other uprisings was to avenge the blood of Sayyid al-Shuhada’ (the Prince of Martyrs) Husayn (peace be upon him) and object to the oppression of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them). Among those uprisings were those of `Ayn al-Wardah and Mukhtar, in both of which a large number of Shi’a participated. Subsequently, there was the revolt of Zaid and other uprisings, all of which sprang from love of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them) and declaring aversion and hatred towards Banu Umayyah. Therefore, we see that a man like Kumail participates in the uprising of `Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Ash`ath or in the last revolt which resulted in the termination of Banu Umayyah’s rule and the end of their dominion over most of the lands of Islam.

The true motive for the tragic events of Karbala’ and the heart-rending martyrdom of Zaid, in a word, was the oppression of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them).

Thus, what was important in these uprisings against Banu Umayyah was the role of the Shi‘a and making use of the oppressed position of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them), though after the martyrdom of the Prince of Martyrs (peace be upon him) the remaining Imams did not revolt since they did not see conditions as appropriate for the establishment of a just and Islamic government through armed uprising. So they became involved performing their Divine duty in other trenches, especially in spreading jurisprudence and repelling many innovations.

Even in the events after the success of the last revolt against Banu Umayyah the only personality more fitting than all others for leadership was Imam as-Sadiq (peace be upon him), but though they recommended this task to the Imam (peace be upon him), he refused to accept. His adopting such a policy was, in the belief of the Shi‘a, in accordance with a command of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) that was disclosed to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) by revelation. In addition, every Imam recognizes better than all else his duty in light of the existing conditions and always gives precedence to the most important matters over all other matters. In this issue, too, if the Imam (peace be upon him) were to accept rulership, the important interests of Islam would be lost, since it was apparent to every authority that in those conditions there was no possibility of implementing the luminous laws of Islam and establishing a just Islamic system of government.

Notes:
[13] Surah Anfal (8), Verse 6
[14]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 1, p. 226
[15]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 36, p. 352
[16]Nahj al-Balaghah, edited by Subhi al-Salih, sermon 3, section 1

Imam Ja‘far as-Sadiq and the Shi’a School of Thought

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: Was Imam Ja‘far as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) the founder of the Shi‘a school or its promulgator and explainer?

ANSWER: Imam as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) acquainted the public with the original Shi‘a school of thought, which perhaps even some friends and devotees of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them) had not recognized properly. By establishing that vast school of knowledge, he familiarized the people with the realities of true Islam, which are fulfilled by following ‘Ali and the Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them). This was while in the periods before Imam as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) the opportunity for disseminating knowledge was not to the extent that it reached in his time.

This does not mean that Imam Ja‘far as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) is the founder of Shi‘a thought, since as explained earlier Shi‘a thought existed in the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) in an organized and systematic manner. Mutawatir traditions and the illuminating guidance of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had specified its limits, and passage of time and occurrences had no share in its development. Of course, these affairs had an influence in its propagation, promulgation, and organization in later periods, especially in the time of Imam as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) and Imam al-Baqir (peace be upon him), and in fact these very incidents made more clear the truth of this school of thought as opposed to the opposing school of thought.

One of the reasons for the success of Shi‘a thought in the issue of Imamah was that during the rule of Banu Umayyah the people witnessed conduct and actions of the claimants to succession of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) which were incompatible with any of the Islamic laws and principles.

This conduct even became a cause for the people’s rebellion against them in different instances, though most of these rebellions were quelled by force and in appearance the government of Banu ‘Umayyah continued, but overall these events caused the Shi‘a school to spread and become entrenched in people’s hearts.

Shia and Ahlulbayt

The Love of Ahlul-Bayt

The Holy Prophet [s] said: "Train your children in three things: the love of your Prophet, the love of his progeny, i.e. Ahlul-Bayt, and recitation of the Qur'an." AI-Jami'-ul-Saghir, vol. 1, p. 14

Imam Sadiq [a] said: "He who is not able to do any good unto us (Ahlul-Bayt) then be may do good to our pious adherents; and he who is not able to visit us, he may visit our righteous followers by which the reward of visiting us (pilgrimage) will be recorded for him." Bihar-ul-Anwar, vol. 74, p. 354

Imam Baqir [a] said: "The best means by which servants can obtain nearness to Allah, Mighty and Glorious, is the obedience to Allah, the obedience to His Messenger, and the obedience to those charged with (spiritual) authority."

Then, he [a] added: "The love of us (Ahlul Bayt) is Faith and the hatred of us is infidelity." Al-Kafi, vol. 1, p. 187

Imam Sadiq [a] said: "Verily, there are various degrees of serving Allah, but affection (and cordial inclination) for us, Ahlul Bayt, is the highest one." Bihar-ul-Anwar, vol. 27, p. 91

Reports of Love for of Ahlul-Bayt

Reports of Love for him, Peace be on him, Being a Sign of Faith (in a Person) and Hatred of him Being a Sign of Hypocrisy (in a Person).

[Abu Bakr Muhammad b. `Umar - known as Ibn al-Ji`ibi al-Hafiz - told us: Muhammad b. Sahl b. al-Hasan told us: Ahmad b. `Umar al-Dihqan told us: Muhammad b. Kathir told us: Isma°il b. Muslim told us: al-A'mash told us on the authority of 'Ad! b. Thabit, on the authority of Zirr b. Hubaysh, who said:] I saw the Commander of the faithful, `Ali b. Abi Talib,on the pulpit and I heard him say: "By Him Who split the seed and brought the soul into being, the Prophet made a promise (ahd) to me: `Only believers will love you and only hypocrites will hate you!"

[Abu `Abd Allah Muhammad b. `Imran al-Marzubani informed me: `Abd Allah b. Muhammad b. `Abd al-`Azlz al-Baghawi told us: `Ubayd Allah b. `Umar al-Qawarlrl told us: JaYar b. Sulayman told us: al-Nadr b. Hamid told us on the authority of Abu al-J3rUd, on the authority of al-Harith al-HamdNnl who said:]
I saw `All, peace be on him. One day he came and went up on the pulpit. He praised and glorified God. Then he said: "A decree which God, the Most High, decreed by the tongue of the Prophet, may God bless him and his family, was that only believers will love me and only hypocrites will hate me. Whoever forges a lie is lost."

[Abu al-Hasan Muhammad b. al-Muzaffar al-Bazzaz informed me: Muhammad b. Yahya told us: Muhammad b. Musa al-Barbarl told us: Khalaf b. Salim told us: WaO` told us: al-A'mash told us on the authority of 'Ad! b. Thabit, on the authority of Zirr b. Hubaysh, on the authority of the Commander of the faithful, peace be on him, who said:]

The Prophet, may God bless him and his family, made a promise (ahd) to me: "Only believers will love you and only hypocrites will hate you."

Ahlul-Bayt and the perverted groups

The opponents of Islam realized that the Ahlul-Bait were the very embodiment of originality and purity and acted as refuge for Muslims in times of distress .and calamities. In their bid to prevent the message of Islam, certain subversive elements pretending love for the Ahlul-Bait, tried to infiltrate the ranks of the followers of the very source of purity. These groups falsely raised the slogan of attachment to the Ahlul-Bait, who in fact had cursed and denied them. This was part of an elaborately designed treachery aimed at distorting belief in Monotheism, which is the essence of Islam.

To carry orit their mischivous plots - they fabricated perversive ideas and deviated philosophies. These elements alleged that Allah the Most Glorified, had transmigrated into the bodies of the Imams of the Ahlul-Bait. They even went to the extent of difying the Imams of the Prophet's household. These movements were backed by the idolatrous Arabs, the Magis, the Manichaeans, the Mazdakis: and the like, who had outwardly embraced Islam to deceive the Muslims. Jewish and Christian thought also participated in this treacherous campaign against Islam, in order to splet the Muslims into new factions. In this way they were able to cause much intellectual confusion by implanting doubts, coining misleading narrations and concepts and allegedly ascribing them to the Ahlul-Bait. To counter the plot a number of learned scholars wrote research-books on `Rijal' (Who-is-who) and managed to expose the imposters, the liars, the fabricaters and the coiners of perversive ideologies, eversince the days of the Prophet. They sifted truth from falsehood on the basis of the authentic traditions, uncovering every mischief monger and scrutinizing each and every narrator, as was done by Najashi in his famous book `Rijal alNajashi', and by Shaikh Tusi in his `al-Fihrist' and `Rijal alTusi' eviated groups who claimed attachment to the AhlulBait, such as `the Exaggerators' were strongly repudiated, cursed and dismissed by the Imams.

Nawbakhti(1), in his book `Firaq al-Shi'a' (Shi'a Sects), classifies such groups and relates the attitude of the Imams of the Ahlul-Bait towards them. Hereunder we refer to some of them: "As to the companions of Abi Khattab Muhammad ibn Abi Zainab Aida' Asadi and those who follow them, they had disputes when they heard that Abu Abdulla Ja'far ibn Muhammad, the Imam al-Sadiq (a. s.) had cursed him (Abi Khattab) and renounced him and his followers: Nawbakhti then says: "A group of them had said that Abu Abdulla Ja'far ibn Muhammad (al-Sadiq) was Allah-the Elevated, the Great, Who is too far above these things - and that Abu Khattab was a prophet.

"Another group said Ja'far ibn Muhammad was Allah the Great, the Mighty, the Elevated too far above all that. He is a light that enters the bodies of the vicegerents. That light was Ja'far ibn Muhammad (al-Sadiq), then it left him and entered into Abu Khattab ...."(2)

Nawbakhti adds, "These perversive groups were the `Exaggerators' who styled themselves as Shi'a. They, may Allah curse them all, (actually) belonged to such groups as the Khurramdins, the Mazdakis(3), the Heretics (4)and the Atheists(5)All of them denied Allah's divinity - Blessed is He and Elevated far above all they ascribe and admitted it in a creature's body, alleging that the body was the dwelling-place of Allah, and Allah was a light, a soul, that moved into those bodies - Elavated is He above all they ascribe. But they differed in respect to their leaders whom they were attached to, each group denouncing the other, and cursing one another.(6)

Continuing his reports about the perversive groups who feigned themselves as lovers of Ahlul-Bait, Nawbakhti narrates, that one of those groups claimed that Muhammad ibn Hanafiya, son of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (a.s.) was al-Mahdi who did not die -nd would never die, had only gone into occultation. Nobody knows where he is. But he would come back and possess the earth, and there would be no Imam after his occultation till his return to his companions, who are the companions of Ibn Karb."(7).

"Among holders of such deviated beliefs, Nawbakhti lists Hamza ibn Amara Barbari of Madina, who in his wild fantasy claimed himself a prophet, and said that Muhammad ibn Hanafiya was Allah - far Elevated is He from what they ascribe - and He himself was his prophet, and that seven means would come down to him from Heaven, by which he would conquer the earth and possess it. A number of people of Madina and of Kufa followed him. Thus, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Husain (Imam al-Baqir), and his Shi'a cursed him and renounced him.(8)

Sa'ed al-Nahdi who belonged to a perverted group, was also cursed by Imam al-Sadiq, who regarded him among those miscreants who fabricated lies and ascribed them to the Ahlu]-Bait (9).

Hereunder we state what had been related by the Shi'a scholars, quoting Imam al-Sadiq about his attitude towards exaggeraters and their deviated beliefs.

Regarding Abu Jarud and his group, Ibn Nadim, in his `al-Fihrist', says: "Imam al-Sadiq cursed him and said: `He is blind in his heart, and blind in his sight'. Kishshi relates identical narrations which prove this. (10)

Al-Sadiq also cursed Abu Mansur Ijli thrice, as stated by Kishshi in his `Rijal'.

`Bazee' ibn Musa Ha'ik was cursed by Imam al-Sadiq (a. s.), as were some others, like Mughira ibn Said, Sirri, Abi Khattab Muhammad ibn Abi Zainab Ajda', Mu'ammar, Bashshar Sha'iri, Hamza Barbari and Sa'ed Nahdi. According to Kishshi's text, the Imam says: "May Allah curse them. We never went without there being some liar to lie against us, or someone with crippled opinion. May Allah rid us of all liars and make them taste burning iron". (11).

Imam al-Sadiq (a.s.) is cited to have renounced the `Exaggeraters' in the following speech: "O Shi'a community - the Shi'a of the family of Muhammad (s.a. w.) be like the cushion in the middle (as between a rider and his saddle). The exaggerator should turn back to you, and the one who lags behind should catch up with you". When a man called Sa'ed inquired about the exaggerator, the Imam replied: "Those who say about us, what we do not say ourselves, are not of us, and we are not of them. "The man further asked as to who are those who lag behind. The Imam answered: "The wanderers who intend good, and they get it and get rewarded for it". (12)

On learning of Abi Khattab's exaggeration, Imam alSadiq wept and invoking Allah as his witness, renounced Abi Khattab.

It is written in `al-Kafi' that once Sadir informed Imam al-Sadiq that some people regard the Imams of Ahlul-Bait as gods, he said: "O Sadir, my hearing, my sight, my skin, my flesh, my blood, and my hair do renounce them, and Allah has renounced them. They are not of my religion, nor of the religion of my ancestors... "(13)

Similar lies were fabricated against the other Imams of the household of the Prophet, by charlatans masqurading as shi'a, but whose real intention was to pollute the cause of the Ahlul-Bait, and to empty the message of Islam, of it true contents.

There was a time, in the history of Islam, when every discontented political aspirant, no matter how ignorant he was of Islam and the Ahlul-Bait, tried to give Shi'a colours to his deviated ambitions in a bid to attract simple people to his cause.

By doing so these rebels, of all shades and colouring, ranging from Iranian infidels to religious interpolaters, did a great disservice to the human society, the scars of which can still be discerned on the body-politic of Islam.

It was a great blessing that the majority of such deviationists who tried in vain to defame the Shi'a, died out, and it was no ordinary task for the Imams of the Ahlul-Bait to pilot the ship of Islam through these troubled waters. The sickly hearts withered away from the history, and only their record of infamy remains in books, which, quite unfortunately certain ignorant modernists have confused with the Shi'a cause.

Regretably, even today some Islamic sects believe in fatalism and incarnation. In their ingnorance they ascribe a body to Allah (far glorious is He from what they say), and weave up all sorts of silly yarns. These retarded minds say that the Almighty sits on a chair, whose widith is seven spans, and that on the Resurrection Day, He puts His leg into Hell to satiate its thirst for more sinners, and that He descends to the lower sky on a white donkey, and many other absurdities. To a rational mind, it is clear this is all heresy and falsehood, and these poor creatures have been unable tocomprehend and have failed in understanding the Greatness of the Power that created them. As discussed earlier, He, the Creator is not bound by time and place and has neither physique nor form. As a matter of fact, such absurd notions, which run contrary to monothism are soundly condemned by Islam.

Notes:
(1) Abu Muhammad Hasan ibn Musa Nawbakhti, one of the most known lmami scholars of the third century A. H.
(2)Nawbakhti, 'Firaq al_Shi`a' , p 59,ed.1388 H
(3) The Mazdakis were the followers of Mazdak, who appeared in the days of the Persian Emperor oubad, Anowshirwan's father. His Book was called `Distaw'. Their belief was similar to the Manichaeans (an old Persian religion) in respect to the two principles of Light and Darkness, (Refer to `al-Fihrist' by Ibn Nadim. The Mazdakis were those who allowed the unlawful advocating the sharing of everything including wealth and women.
(4)'The Zindiks denied all divine religions on the pretext of being free thinkers.
(5)The Dahriyun (Atheists) believed that the world existed from pre-eternity and would remain without end, and has no Creator. They were actually, a group of infidel disbelievers.
(6) Ibid., p. 60
(7) Ibid.,p.44.
(8) Ibid.,p.45.
(9) Ibid.
(10)Ibid.,p.21
(11)Ibid.,p.43
(12) Tabasi,`Mishakat al-Alnwarfi Ghurar al-Akhbar',p.66,2nd ed.
(13) Allama Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar,v.47,p.378,3rd edition

The Demographic Concentration of the Shi‘ah

By: Ghulam-Husayn Muharrami

As stated earlier, during the first three centuries AH, the Shi‘ah were scattered across and living in many parts of the Muslim lands. Yet, the demographic concentration and center of the Shi‘ah were in certain regions, which during the first century AH were places such as Medina, Yemen, Kufah, Basrah, Mada’in, and Jabal ‘Amil.

During the second century AH, in addition to these regions, places such as Qum, Khurasan, Tabaristan, Baghdad, Jabal, and Africa became among the regions where the Shi‘ah were demographically concentrated. Now we shall explain these regions one by one.

1. The Shi‘ah-Populated Places during the First Century Hijri

During the first century AH, Shi‘ah-populated places were confined to Hijaz, Yemen and Iraq. The residents of these regions were Arabs and considered to be the pioneering Muslims. Shi‘ism in Hijaz and Yemen was traceable back to the period of the Holy Prophet (S). Iraq which was conquered after the demise of the Prophet (S) also became the residence place of Yemeni tribes and the government of Hadhrat ‘Ali (‘a) accelerated the spread of Shi‘ism in that place.[36][437]

a. Medina

The name of Medina {Madinah} was “Yathrib” before the hijrah and the people there consisted of two Yemeni tribes, the Aws and Khazraj, re-named “Ansar” after the advent of Islam (after the hijrah to be exact), and three Jewish tribes, namely the Banu Qaynuqa‘, Banu Nadhir and Banu Quraydhah. When the Noble Messenger (S) migrated there, its name was changed into “Madinah an-Nabi” {the City of the Prophet} and on account of the constant mention of the word “Madinah” {Medina} it was called as such.

Medina was the political capital of the first three caliphs (Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman), and Quraysh who were the staunchest adversaries of the Prophet’s Household {ahl al-bayt} lived there. Despite this, the Ansar still constituted the majority of the inhabitants of Medina who were always sympathetic to the descendants of the Prophet (S) and during the political squabbles, they took Ahl al-Bayt’s (‘a) the side. The distinguished Shi‘ah sahabah living in the mentioned city were constantly telling the truth to the people. Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari, a great companion of the Prophet (S), while leaning on his staff, used to roam around the alleys of Medina and say, ‘Ali is the best of people. Whoever would not accept him will become an infidel {kafir}. O the assembly of Ansar! Train your children to love ‘Ali. Anyone of them who does not accept this love, then you have to ask his mother concerning the fetus.[37][438]

The same Jabir used to sit in Masjid an-Nabi and say, “O Baqir al-‘Ulum {He who cleaves asunder all knowledge}! Where are you?” The people were saying, “Jabir, you are talking nonsense.” Jabir would reply, “No, I am not talking nonsense. In fact, the Messenger of Allah (S) said to me: ‘After me, you shall meet a person from among my descendants whose name will be the same as mine and whose facial appearance will be the same as mine. He shall open to the people tens of knowledge’.”[38][439]
When he met Imam al-Baqir (‘a) for the first time, he visited the Imam twice everyday.[39][440] Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari used to stand by the door of Masjid an-Nabi and say, Anyone who recognizes me has recognized me, and he who does not recognize should know that I am Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari, Jundab ibn Junadah… Muhammad is the heir of the knowledge of Adam (Adam) and all the virtues of the prophets, and ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib is the executor of will {wasi} of Muhammad and heir of his knowledge.[40][441]

Meanwhile, most members of Banu Hashim lived in that city and were held in high esteem. The infallible Imams (‘a) lived in the same city and people benefited from their teachings. In particular, the study circles of Imam al-Baqir and Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) extended to as far as Masjid an-Nabi.

Narrates Abu Hamzah ath-Thumali: I was sitting in the Masjid an-Nabi when a man approached and greeted me, and asked about Abu Ja‘far (Imam al-Baqir (‘a)). I asked, “What is your business (with him)?” He replied, “I listed down forty questions I wanted to ask Abu Ja‘far.” He hardly finished his statement when Imam al-Baqir (‘a) entered the mosque. A number of people from Khurasan gathered around him and asked the Imam about the rituals of Hajj.[41][442]

Some of the students of these two personages such as Aban ibn Tughlab also gave lessons in Masjid an-Nabi. Whenever Aban would enter the Masjid an-Nabi, he would sit at the place of the Prophet (S), give lessons to the people, and narrate hadiths to them. Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) used to tell him, “Sit at the Mosque of Medina and give edicts {fatawa} to the people because I want persons like you to be seen among my Shi‘ah.”[42][443]

b. Yemen

Prior to the conquest of Iraq and the founding of Kufah, Shi‘ah were living in Yemen. Next to Medina, Yemen was the second place where the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a) were located after the demise of the Prophet (S) because the people there embraced Islam through ‘Ali (‘a). Writes Ibn Shahr Ashub, thus: The Noble Messenger (S) dispatched Khalid ibn Walid to Yemen to invite the people there to Islam and it so happened that Bara’ ibn ‘Azib was also included in the forces of Khalid. Khalid stayed there for six months but he was not able to convince a single person to become Muslim. The Messenger of Allah (S) was not happy about this state of affairs and recalled Khalid, and instead the Prophet (S) sent the Commander of the Faithful ‘Ali (‘a).

When the Imam arrived there, he performed the dawn {subh} prayer and read to the people of Yemen the letter of the Prophet (S). All members of the tribe of Hamdan became Muslim in one day and after Hamdan the rest of the tribes in Yemen embraced Islam. When this news was relayed to the Holy Prophet (S), he performed prostration of gratitude {sujud shukr}.[43][444]

The first house where ‘Ali (‘a) stayed while in Yemen was the house of a woman called Umm Sa‘ad Barzakhiyyah where the Imam gave Qur’an lessons. The said house was converted into a mosque later and it was named as “Masjid ‘Ali”.

Particularly at the last moments of the Prophet (S), people from the different tribes of Yemen went to Medina to meet the Prophet (S), and in their conversation the Prophet (S) introduced to them ‘Ali (‘a) as his successor[44][445] and thus, this fact remained in their memory.[45][446] And after the demise of the Prophet (S), they did not officially recognize the government in Medina and refrain from remitting their zakat to Abu Bakr, the caliph of the time.[46][447] As stated in one of their poems,

أَطَعْنا رَسولَ الله ما دام وسطنا فيا قوم ما شأني وَ شأنُ أبي بكر؟

أيورثها بكراً إذا كانَ بَعْدَه فتلك لعمر الله قاصمة الظُّهر

When the Messenger of Allah was in our midst, we obeyed him.

O people! Where are we and where is Abu Bakr?

If Abu Bakr had a son named Bakr, shall he inherit the caliphate after him?!

I swear to my soul! This is backbreaking.[47][448]

During the caliphate of ‘Ali (‘a), in addition to the hundreds of thousands of Yemenis who were residing in Iraq[48][449] and thousands of whom were considered part of the Imam’s army, most of the people of Yemen were also Shi‘ah. The ‘Uthmanis and sympathizers of the Umayyads living there were very small in number and the evidence of it is the treatment of Busr ibn Artat, as per instruction of Mu‘awiyah, toward them.[49][450]

While Busr was with the people of the regions sympathetic to the Quraysh and the Umayyads, he did nothing. For example, he passed by Mecca and Ta’if, he did nothing against these two cities.[50][451] But when he arrived in the cities of Yemen such as Arhab, San‘a and Hadhramawt, he engaged in mass murder. In San‘a he beheaded a hundred Iranian nobles. He had no mercy toward the representatives of Ma’rab who had come to conquer Oman as he killed them all. When he arrived in Hadhramawt, he said: “I want to slaughter one fourth of the people of this city.”[51][452]

In Jayshan in particular, which according to Ya‘qubi, all its inhabitants were Shi‘ah, Busr committed widespread massacre.[52][453] Ibn Abi’l-Hadid had estimated the number of those killed by Busr to have exceeded thirty thousand people most of whom were Yemenis.[53][454] This shows that the population of the Shi‘ah at the time had been considerable. At any rate, following the devastation made by Busr in Yemen, Hadhrat Amir (‘a) sent Jariyah ibn Qudamah (as-Sa‘di) and Busr fled from Yemen. The people of Yemen and the Shi‘ah there then killed ‘Uthmanis and sympathizers of the Umayyads wherever they found them.[54][455]

After the martyrdom of ‘Ali (‘a), Yemen still remained a place where the Shi‘ah were demographically concentrated, and when Imam al-Husayn (‘a) was setting off from Mecca to Kufah, Ibn ‘Abbas suggested to the Imam not to go to Iraq, but to proceed instead to Yemen “where there are Shi‘ah of your father.”[55][456]

It must be noted that with the beginning of victories and expansion of the Muslim domain, Yemen (and the Arabian Peninsula in general) had reached its geographical limit and played a secondary role in the political and military matters. Although the two cities of Mecca and Medina had some social impact on account of their religious standing, Yemen, which during the time of the Prophet (S) was considered one of the most important parts of the Islamic domain, was located approximately in one corner of the Muslim territories and their southern tip after the victories of the Muslims in the neighboring countries. In view of this, the spirit of Shi‘ism was dominant there.

During the uprising of Abu’s-Saraya at the end of the second century, Ibrahim ibn Musa entered there without encountering any local resistance and occupied it.[56][457] And in the end, the Zaydi sect prevailed in Yemen. Even now, many of its residents are Zaydis.[57][458]

c. Kufah
Kufah is a city that had been founded after the advent of Islam by the Muslims there. The ancient city of Hirah near Kufah was always ruled by the Lakhmiyan.[58][459]

In 17 AH Sa‘ad ibn Abi Waqqas, the commander of the Iranian front, founded this city at the order of the second caliph (‘Umar) and thereafter, eighty of the sahabah resided there.[59][460] At the beginning, the city of Kufah was more of a military camp and accommodation for the forces of the eastern front. Most of its inhabitants were Muslim mujahidun who were mostly from the Qahtani and Yemeni tribes. For this reason, Kufah always had the Qahtani and Yemeni atmosphere.[60][461]

Among the companions of the Prophet (S), Ansar with Yemeni root were residing there mostly. The Khazraj, one of the two tribes of Ansar, had a particular district there. Yaqut Hamawi says, “During the time of Ziyad (ibn ‘Ubayd Allah), most of the houses made of bricks were houses of (the tribes of) Khazraj and Murad.[61][462]

Of course, a number of non-Arabs and Iranians were also living in Kufah who, during the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), were busy trading in the Kufah market.[62][463] It was the same non-Arabs who constituted most of the force during Mukhtar’s uprising.[63][464]

Concerning the merit of Kufah, there are many pertinent hadiths transmitted, one of which is from ‘Ali (‘a) when he said: What a good city Kufah is! The soil there loves us and we love it also. On the Day of Resurrection, seventy thousand people whose faces are like the moon in radiance shall be raised at the outside of Kufah (the cemetery of Kufah which was located outside the city). Kufah is our city and the place and residence of our Shi‘ah.

Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) says, “O God! Be inimical to him who shall be inimical to Kufah.”[64][465]

The record of Shi‘ism in Kufah is traceable to the time even prior to the transfer of ‘Ali (‘a) there. The two factors that can be identified for this is first, the residence of the Yemeni tribes there, most of whom, as we have said earlier, were sympathetic to the descendants of the Prophet (S), and the other one is the existence of distinguished Shi‘ah sahabah such as ‘Abd Allah ibn Mas‘ud and ‘Ammar Yasir.

‘Ammar was sent by ‘Umar there as governor and Ibn Mas‘ud as Qur’an teacher. For many years, Ibn Mas‘ud was busy teaching jurisprudence {fiqh} and the Qur’an to the people there.[65][466]

We can observe the impact of the teachings of these distinguished men at the beginning of the caliphate of ‘Ali (‘a). The sermon of Malik al-Ashtar when the people pledged their allegiance to the Imam shows the spirit of Shi‘ism among the people, when Malik says: O people! This successor of the successors and heir to the knowledge of the prophets… is a person to whose faith the Book of Allah gives testimony and the Prophet to his being a dweller of paradise. He is the one the virtues about whom are perfected; with regard to his precedence in knowledge and merit, the latter ones and the pioneering ones have not cast doubt.[66][467]

When ‘Ali (‘a) dispatched his son Hasan (‘a) and ‘Ammar to ask the assistance of the people of Kufah in the battle against the Nakithun {those who broke their allegiance} (in the Battle of Jamal {Camel}), nine thousand men joined the ranks of the Imam even despite a person like Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari, the ruler there, who prevented people from assisting the Commander of the Faithful (‘a).[67][468]

With ‘Ali’s (‘a) migration to Kufah, this city had become the most important Shi‘ah-populated city up to the end of the third century AH. Dr. Sayyid Husayn Ja‘fari thus says in this regard: Since the time when ‘Ali (‘a) transferred to Kufah in 36 AH and even earlier than that, this city had become the main center of the movements, inspirations, hopes, and at times, coordinated struggles of the Shi‘ah. Inside and around Kufah, tumultuous events that construct the early history of Shi‘ism took place.

The events such as the preparation of the forces of ‘Ali (‘a) for the battles of Jamal and Siffin; the appointment and stepping down from caliphate of Hasan ibn ‘Ali (‘a); the uprising of Hujr ibn ‘Uday al-Kindi; the killing of Husayn (‘a) and his votaries; and the Tawwabun movement and the uprising of Mukhtar are among these events. Given this, Kufah is the place of hopelessness, deprivations, and even treachery and failure in the attainment of goals of the Shi‘ah on the part of those who do not want to seen the descendants of ‘Ali in the stewardship of the Muslim society.[68][469]

Although the killers of Imam al-Husayn were Kufans,[69][470] the distinguished Shi‘ah at the time were languishing in the prison of Ibn Ziyad.[70][471] Besides, with the martyrdom of Muslim and Hani, the Shi‘ah were left without commander against a tough enemy such as Ibn Ziyad and had no match for his power. After the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (‘a), however, the Shi‘ah came to their senses and launched the Tawwabun movement and the uprising of Mukhtar.

Kufah had been known for friendship and love of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and enmity toward the Umayyads. Even Mus‘ab ibn az-Zubayr feigned love for the descendants of the Prophet (S) in order to win the hearts of the Kufans. As such, he married a daughter of Imam al-Husayn (‘a).[71][472] By the end of the first century AH, although there were then new Shi‘ah-populated centers, Kufah was still considered the most important Shi‘ah-populated city.

While advising his supporters during the initial stage of the uprising against the Umayyads, for example, Muhammad ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abd Allah ibn al-‘Abbas, the leader of the ‘Abbasid uprising, said: “But (the people of) Kufah and its districts are Shi‘ah of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib.”[72][473]

During the second and third centuries AH, the uprisings of some Talibis also took place in Kufah. Notwithstanding the existence of an important city such as Baghdad during the ‘Abbasid period, Kufah did not lose its political importance and the most noted uprising of the ‘Alawis during the second half of the second century AH, i.e. the uprising of Ibn Tabataba under the military commandership of Abu’s-Saraya was staged in the same city.[73][474]

As such, the Umayyads monitored Kufah closely and bloodthirsty individuals such as Ziyad, Ibn Ziyad and Hajjaj would be designated to rule there. The rulers there were always supposed to be inimical to the ‘Alawis, and in the event that a ruler like Khalid ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Qasri had little compassion for the Shi‘ah, he would immediately be dismissed and even be imprisoned.[74][475]

Apart from its political aspect, Kufah was also regarded as the most important Shi‘ah-populated city in terms of knowledge and the Shi‘ah culture was dominant there. The majority of students of the pure Imams (‘a) were Shi‘ah of this city. Great Shi‘ah clans were living in Kufah. They offered remarkable services to the Shi‘ah culture. For example, from the time of Imam as-Sajjad (‘a) up to the minor occultation {ghaybah as-sughra} men of the House of A‘yan were among the companions of the pure Imams (‘a).

Sixty prominent scholars of hadith {muhaddithun} emerged from this clan. It had stalwarts such as Zurarah ibn A‘yan, Hamran ibn A‘yan, Bakir ibn A‘yan, Hamzah ibn Hamran, Muhammad ibn Hamran, and ‘Ubayd ibn Zurarah—the same ‘Ubayd who went to Medina as the representative of the people of Kufah after the demise of Imam as-Sadiq (‘a) to dispel any skepticism regarding the matter of Imamate, before going back to Kufah.[75][476]

The House of Abi Shu‘bah was another great Shi‘ah clan in Kufah whose forefather, Abu Shu‘bah, had narrated hadith from Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (‘a). Najashi claims that all of those narrations are reliable.[76][477]

Similarly, the House of Nahik is also one of the great Shi‘ah clans in Kufah from which ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad and ‘Abd ar-Rahman Samari belong.[77][478]

In the mosques of Kufah, particularly in its central mosque, hadiths of the pure Imams (‘a) used to be taught there. Hasan ibn ‘Ali Washsha’, a companion of Imam ar-Ridha (‘a), says: “I saw in Masjid Kufah nine hundred people who were transmitting hadiths from Imam as-Sadiq (‘a).”[78][479]

d. Basrah

Basrah is a city founded by the Muslims in 17 AH simultaneous with the founding of Kufah.[79][480] Although the people of Basrah were known for inclination toward ‘Uthman for supporting A’ishah, Talhah and Zubayr, at the same time that the Jamal {Camel} Army was in Basrah, the Shi‘ah there fought against it and a large number of them attained martyrdom. As narrated by Shaykh al-Mufid, from (the tribe of) ‘Abd al-Qays alone, five hundred of the Shi‘ah of ‘Ali (‘a) were martyred.[80][481]

According to Baladhuri, three thousand men from among the Shi‘ah of the tribe of Rabi‘ah joined the ranks of the Imam at Dhiqar.[81][482] After the Battle of Jamal, notwithstanding the atmosphere of inclination to ‘Uthman in Basrah, many Shi‘ah were still living there. As such, when Mu‘awiyah dispatched Ibn Hadhrami to create unrest there, he informed him that some people in Basrah are Shi‘ah and advised him to avoid some tribes such as that of Rabi‘ah notwithstanding the great number of the ‘Uthmanis, and if ‘Ali (‘a) would not send off any force from Kufah, by means of unrests he would take control of Basrah through the ‘Uthmanis.[82][483]

During the event of Karbala’, Imam al-Husayn (‘a) also wrote a letter to some distinguished men of Basrah. Among them, Yazid ibn Mas‘ud Nahshali accepted the invitation of the Imam, responded positively to him, gathered the tribes of Banu Tamim, Banu Sa‘ad and Banu Hanzalah, and called on them to assist Imam al-Husayn (‘a). He then wrote a letter to the Imam, informing him of these tribes’ readiness. But when they were already to join the ranks of the Imam, they heard the news of his martyrdom.[83][484]

During the uprising of the Tawwabun, as narrated by Mas‘udi, a number of the Shi‘ah of Basrah together with the Shi‘ah of Mada’in had also joined the army of the Tawwabun. Of course, when they arrived at the scene, the battle was over.[84][485]

During the Umayyad period, the Shi‘ah of Basrah experienced sufferings at the hands of cruel and bloodthirsty rulers such as Ziyad and Samarah ibn Jundab. Ziyad came to Basrah in 45 AH and delivered the Batra’[85][486] Sermon saying: I swear to God that I shall call to account the guardian for the fault of the guarded one; the resident for the crime of the traveler; and the healthy one for the sin of the sick one to such as extent that when one of you would see another, he will say that his own Sa‘ad is the proof that Sa‘id is guilty. From then on, beware lest somebody went out at night as I will shed his blood… Keep your tongues and hands away from me so as for you to remain safe from my tongue and hands.[86][487]

Later on, Kufah also became under the governorship and administration of Ziyad, and he would stay for six months in Kufah and the next six months in Basrah. Every time he was in Kufah, he would designate Samarah ibn Jundab to administer Basrah on his behalf. Samarah was an atrocious man and never desisted from shedding blood. During the absence of Ziyad, he butchered eight thousand people.[87][488]

With the passage of time, the spirit of Shi‘ism in Basrah became stronger so much so that during the beginning of the ‘Abbasid rule, the second ‘Alawi uprising—the uprising of Ibrahim, brother of Muhammad Nafs az-Zakiyyah—took place there.[88][489]

e. Mada’in
In contrast to Kufah and Basrah, Mada’in is a city which has been existing even prior to the advent of Islam and conquered by Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas in 16 AH during the caliphate of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab. It is said that Anushirawan founded this city and its Persian name was Tisfun which was considered one of the capitals of the Sassanid Empire. Taq-e Kisra[89][490] was also located there.

For the reason that it was composed of seven large places each of which was as large as a city, the Arabs called it “Mada’in” which is the plural form of “madinah” {city} (its other plural form being “mudun”). Of course, by founding new cities such as Kufah, Basrah, Wasit, Baghdad, and Samarra, this city was gradually abandoned.[90][491]

Mada’in had been one of the Shi‘ah-populated cities during the first, second and third centuries AH, and the reason behind it was the rule of distinguished Shi‘ah sahabah such as Salman al-Farsi and Hudhayfah ibn Yaman there. And as such, the people of Mada’in, from the beginning, had accepted Islam through the hands of Shi‘ah sahabah. In the uprising of the Tawwabun, names of Shi‘ah from Mada’in can be noticed. Mas‘udi says: After the martyrdom of Sulayman ibn Sard Khaza‘i and Musayyab ibn Najbah Fazari ‘Abd Allah ibn Sa‘d ibn Nufayl assumed the commandership of the Tawwabun. Given this, the Shi‘ah of Basrah and Mada’in, who were approximately five hundred people and whose commanders were Muthanna ibn Mukharramah and Sa‘d ibn Hudhayfah, quickly came to the front and personally tried to join the Tawwabun but they failed.[91][492]

Shi‘ism had always been dominant in this city. In this regard,Yaqut Hamawi says, “Most of the people of Mada’in are Shi‘ah Imamiyyah.”[92][493]

f. Jabal ‘Amil

Jabal ‘Amil was another Shi‘ah-populated region during the first century AH. Shi‘ism of the people of this place started when Abu Dharr was exiled by ‘Uthman ibn al-‘Affan to Sham. The late Sayyid Muhsin Amin says, Mu‘awiyah also banished Abu Dharr to the villages of Jabal ‘Amil. Abu Dharr engaged in guiding the people. Thus, the people there became Shi‘ah. In the villages of Sarfand and Mays of Jabal ‘Amil, there are two mosques named “Abu Dharr Masjid”. Even during the time of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a), {the inhabitants of} a certain village called “As‘ar” were Shi‘ah.[93][494]

With regard to Shi‘ism there, the late Muzaffar had also said: “The origin of Shi‘ism in Jabal ‘Amil is traceable to the call of the mujahid {struggler} in the path of Allah, Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari.”[94][495] Kird-‘Ali also says that the record of Shi‘ism in Damascus, Jabal ‘Amil and north of Lebanon can be traced back to the first century AH.[95][496]

Summary

The root of Shi‘ism in Kufah is traceable even prior to the transfer of ‘Ali (‘a) because most of the residents there belonged to Yemeni tribes most of whom were Shi‘ah. Besides, distinguished Shi‘ah sahabah lived there.

With the transfer of ‘Ali (‘a) to this city toward the end of the third century AH, Kufah became the most important Shi‘ah-dominated city. As such, during the second and third centuries AH, the uprisings of a number of Talibis were launched there, and the Shi‘ah culture was always dominant there.

Notwithstanding the spirit of inclination toward ‘Uthman in the city of Basrah, there were also Shi‘ah of the Commander of the Faithful (‘a) such as the tribe of Rabi‘ah living there and they fought against the Companions of the Camel (forces of Talhah, Zubayr and ‘A’ishah). With the passage of time, the influence of Shi‘ism in the city of Basrah became stronger.

On account of the rule there of great Shi‘ah sahabah such as Salman al-Farsi and Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, Mada’in was considered one of the Shi‘ah-populated cities.

With the banishment of Abu Dharr to Sham, the seed of Shi‘ism was planted in the region of Jabal ‘Amil.

Conceptual Foundations of Shi’i Islam

By: Prof. Dr. Sayyid Husayn Muhammad Ja'fari

The division of the community of Islam into Sunni and Shi'i branches has commonly been explained in terms of purely political differences. Its origins have been attributed to basically political partisanship with regard to the leadership of the Umma, a partisanship which later exploded into conflict in the civil war between 'Ali and Mu'awiya.

This war not only established the Umayyads in power, but also supposedly marked the advent of Shi'ism as a religious movement divergent from the main body of believers. Such an interpretation grossly oversimplifies a very complex situation.

Those who thus emphasize the political nature of Shi'ism are perhaps too eager to project the modern Western notion of the separation of church and state back into seventh. century Arabian society, where such a notion would be not only foreign, but completely unintelligible. Such an approach also implies the spontaneous appearance of Shi'ism rather than its gradual emergence and development within Islamic society.

The recent occidental conception of “a purely spiritual movement” is exceptional. Throughout most of human history religion has been intimately involved in the whole life of man in society, and not least in his politics. Even the purely religious teaching of Jesus-as it is commonly regarded-is not without its political relevance. [1]

Just as the Prophet was basically a religious and spiritual teacher and messenger and, at the same time, due to the circumstances, a temporal ruler and statesman, Islam has been since its very birth both a religious discipline and, so to speak, a socio-political movement. It is basically religious because of the status Muhammad attained as the Apostle of God appointed and sent by Him to deliver His message to mankind, and political because of the environment and circumstances in which it arose and grew.

Likewise Shi'ism, in its inherent nature, has always been both religious and political, and these co-existing aspects are found side by side throughout its history. It is therefore difficult to speak, at any stage of its existence, about the “political” Shi'a as distinct from the “religious” one. Throughout the first three or four centuries of Islamic religious and institutional development, one cannot fail to see that all religious discussions among Muslims had both political and social relevance.

When we analyse different possible relations which the religious beliefs and the political constitution in Islam bear to one another, we find the claims and the doctrinal trends of the supporters of 'Ali more inclined towards the religious aspects than the political ones; thus it seems paradoxical that the party whose claims were based chiefly on spiritual and religious considerations, as we shall examine in detail presently, should be traditionally labelled as political in origin.

The term Shi'a, keeping in view its historical development, must strictly be taken throughout this chapter in its literal meaning as followers, party, group, associates, partisans, or in a rather looser sense, the “supporters”.[2] In these meanings the word Shi'a occurs a number of times in the Qur'an.[3]

In its applied meaning as a particular designation for the followers of 'Ali and the people of his house, and thereby a distinct denomination within Islam against the Sunni, the term Shi'a was a later usage. In the infant years of Islamic history, one cannot speak of the so-called “orthodox” Sunna and the “heretical” Shi'a, but rather only of two ill-defined points of view that were nevertheless drifting steadily, and finally irreconcilably, further apart.

With this meaning of the term Shi'a in mind, our main purpose here is to trace the background of this support to 'All and to investigate its origins in the Arabian society of the day in the midst of which Islam arose. Consequently it will be illustrated how this attitude became manifest as early as the death of the Prophet Muhammad.

The starting point in any study of Shi'a Islam must, by historical necessity, be the nature and composition of the Muslim community which emerged at Medina under the leadership of Muhammad. This community was homogeneous neither in cultural background and traditions nor in politico-social institutions. The unification of different people or groups of people in a new system does not imply a complete elimination or even a change in some of their deep-rooted values and traditions.

It was therefore natural that certain values, ideas, and inclinations of different component parts of the Umma should reflect themselves in certain aspects of the new religious order. Consequently, rather than a homogeneous approach to all issues, especially of a non-fundamental nature, one must expect to find in the Umma a multiplicity of approaches and points of view, with the acceptance of Muhammad and his mission being the fundamental factor binding the various groups together.

The inclination of some of the Arabs from among the Companions of the Prophet to support 'Ali was thus a natural corollary of the already existing ideas prevalent among the various Arab tribes who together constituted Muhammad's Umma at Medina.

This Umma consisted of the Meccans, both from the Quraysh al-Bitah (those who inhabited the district immediately around the Ka'ba) and Quraysh az-Zawahir (those whose quarters were in the outskirts); of Medinese, who were divided into Aws and Khazraj, both tribes of the South Arabian stock and still preserving many of the characteristics of their original land; of the desert Arabs surrounding Med ma; and even of some Arabs and non- Arabs from distant places, such as Bilal of Abyssinia and Salman of Persia.

All of them together formed a common society under Islam, but when we consider a problem common among them we have to take into consideration the different temperaments and inclinations of each group, and not those of only one single people, group, or locality. We must presume that the Arabs of different origins and socio-cultural backgrounds understood Islam, at least in its early stage, according to their own social and moral ideas.

Arab society, both nomadic and sedentary, was organized on a tribal basis, and of all the social bonds, loyalty to the tribe (al-'asabiya) was considered the most important. This feeling of al-'asabiya, along with other aspects of tribal life, provides the most emphatic expression of and a constant theme for pre-Islamic poetry.

The tribal system was based on the actual[4] or fictitious descent from a common ancestor through whom the social and moral status of the members of the tribe was determined. People who could not boast of their ancestors as a symbol of greatness were of little social standing and often subject to contempt.

Knowledge and awareness of the common ancestor was therefore the central point in Arab social consciousness, and honour and glory of a tribe in comparison with any other tribe consisted of the honour and glory of its ancestors. Any claim to prestige and honour of the individual members as well as the whole tribe was perhaps exclusively dependent on that of the ancestors.

The word used for such claims is hasab, which is commonly explained by the Arab philologists in the meaning of enumeration of the famous deeds of ancestors. This does not mean that the word hasab excludes the enumeration of those ancestors themselves who figure in the genealogical tree in both paternal and maternal descent.[5]

If the noble deeds of one's ancestors are numerous enough to be cited and boastfully enumerated by their descendants, the richer is their hasab or sharaf as is evident from a popular expression, al-hasab or sharaf al-dakham.[6] This means a nobility which becomes “thicker” and stronger through accumulated noble deeds of ancestors generation after generation.[7] Thus sings the famous Arab poet Nabigha adh-Dhubyani: “His father before him and his father's father built the glories of life as models.” [8]

A tribe with large numbers but few deeds of fame to its credit coming down from its ancestors was not only of less social standing but also subject to mockery from those who could enumerate more of their ancestors' noble deeds. So we hear from the poet Damra as he says: “And the joint stock which they have begotten among the race of Sa'd and Malik: but some of the fire-sticks of the tribe fail to light and are nothing worth.” [9]

In a rigidly tribal system such as that of the Arabs, the fame of ancestors for noble deeds was the foremost source of pride and of claim to superiority. Nobility thus derived, a tribe considered it a constellatory factor in claiming its higher position in relation to other tribes.

Within a tribe a particular clan had higher claim to glory, and therefrom to leadership, if its direct line of ancestors was more distinguished by their noble deeds in relation to other clans of the same tribe. This fame of ancestors was not mere genealogical ornament to the descendants but had individual relevance to each man and was of great significance in the claim of individual honour. [10]

Thus, for example, Nu'man b. al-Mundhir, King of Hira, asked Amir b. Uhaymir b. Bahdala, who had claimed the highest rank among all present, “Are you then the noblest of all Arabs in respect of your tribe?” He replied, “The Ma'add excel in nobility and number, and amongst them the Nizar, and amongst them the Mudar, and amongst them the Khindif, amongst whom the Tamim, and amongst these the 'Awf, within 'Awf the family of Bahdala. He who does not admit this may contest with me.” [11]

Not only physical characteristics were considered by the Arabs to be hereditary; [12] they firmly believed that noble qualities as well were inherent in certain stocks. Moral qualities thus being genetically transmitted, the best virtues for an individual were therefore only those which were handed down to him from his noble ancestors.

The Arabs made a clear distinction between inherited nobility and nobility claimed only on account of personal merit, the former being a source of great social prestige while the latter was of little consequence. In other words, personal fame and merit counted for little in securing for oneself an exalted position; it was inherited fame and inherited merit which confirmed proper estimation in the society.[13]

There are numerous references in pre-Islamic poetry where ancestral nobility and virtues are described as a strong and lofty building which they built for their descendants[14] and which it would be shameful for the latter to destroy.[15] Ancestral fame of nobility and virtuous deeds must therefore be preserved as the strongest and most continuous incentive to be adopted by the descendants.

It was in this sense that the term Sunna had frequently been used long before Islam.[16] After Islam the institution of Sunna remained as forceful as ever, but its content was drastically replaced by the Prophetic Sunna. Nevertheless certain trends of the original Sunna did persist, at least in certain sections of the Arab-Muslim community.

The most privileged in Arab society, in the midst of which Islam arose, was therefore the one who could boast publicly that he was destined to have ancestors who had nothing undistinguished to leave to him as their Sunna. A word commonly used to express the idea of ability to trace moral qualities back to one's noble ancestors is 'irq, (p1. a'raq and 'uruq).

'Irq means root, origin of a man, and its plural a'raq signifies ancestors of a man. Thus frequent expressions of a man's inheritance from noble ancestors are found in phrases such as, “he has an hereditary share in generousness or nobleness,”[17] or “noble blood lifted him up to his ancestors.”[18]
It is clear that in the religious sentiments of the Arabs, ancestral piety, noble deeds, and moral qualities as Sunna played an important role. The religion of the Arabs, which varied in strength and importance from locality to locality throughout the peninsula, was originally the worship of tribal symbols, which later became identified with certain forces of nature represented by numerous deities.

The tribal deity, symbolized in the sacred stone (nasab), was called the lord (rabb) of its temple. Allah, the supreme deity of the Meccan sanctuary, was described as Rabb al-Ka'ba or Rabb Hadha al-Bayt.[19] It is important to note that the word rabb often referred not to the deity but to the person in charge of the sanctuary.

There was no organized priestly hierarchy, but certain clans acted as guardians of the sanctuaries. This guardianship passed from one generation to another, together with the reputation for hereditary sanctity. [20]

This sanctity, which had its original source in the magical power attributed to the idol which they served, was strictly connected with the idea of nobility of race (sharaf) synonymous with the pride of descent from noble ancestors.

The nobility of the clan being hereditary, the priestly clans of long standing represented the highest aristocracy in pre-Islamic Arabia. Traces of this sort of aristocracy are to be found in the belief of the Arabs, especially of the South, that members of certain families have a charisma or spiritual power, or sharaf.

The guardianship of a sanctuary, a “house” (Bayt), and “honour” (sharaf) came to be understood as being inseparable.[21] As a result, priesthood in Arabia was very often combined with tribal leadership, even with kingship. We may go even further by stating that political leadership there was originally of a religious and priestly nature.

The South Arabian monarchial institution of the mukarrib is a clear proof of the office of the priest-king who embraces at once religious and temporal authority. The clans of political rulers could have attained the status of great nobility after first acquiring power by political means, but nevertheless, they could not equal the sacerdotal lineages; for example, the kings of Kinda ranked only after the three most noble priestly houses.

These three houses, “after the house of Hashim b. 'Abd Manaf amongst the Quraysh”, were Az-Zurara b. 'Udas of the Tamim, Al-Hudhayfa b. Badr of the Fazari tribe, and Dhu'l-Jaddayn b. 'Abd Allah b. Hammam of the Shayban tribe. “And as far as the Kinda were concerned they were not counted amongst the ahi-al-buyutat, even though they were the kings.” [22]

It is apparent that not only was priestly status the foundation of political leadership, but when the latter was attained by men of non-priestly clans, it imposed upon them religious functions. They were also mediators between men and deities. As a result, the idea of tribal leadership and service to the God became synonymous.

Those who led the tribe were of necessity the guardians of the tribal bayt. They were the ahl al-bayt, the “people of the house”, or the bayt of such and such a tribe.[23] Together these leading clans formed the noble estate of Arabia, the buyutat al-'Arab. Even later, when the meaning of the ahl al-bayt became limited to the descendants of the Prophet, the term Buyutat al-'Arab survived into later centuries in the sense of the tribal aristocracy and nobility. [24]

It is against this background that we have to consider the status of the Banu Hashim, not only among the people of Mecca but in a wider circle due to their vast contacts with the people of different places through the yearly fair of Ukaz and the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba.

Some western scholars have sceptically questioned whether the ancestors of Muhammad were really as important in dignity, nobility, and influence as the sources suggest, and they usually claim that the importance of the Banu Hashim has in fact been grossly exaggerated.

The basis of this doubt is that the 'Abbasids were descendants of Hashim, whereas the rivals whom they ousted, the Umayyads, were the descendants of 'Abd Shams, and that the latter have been treated unsympathetically by the historians who happened to write under the 'Abbasid regime.

For this reason, it is claimed that Hashim and his family, the ancestors of the 'Abbasid caliphs, had been given greater prominence in extant histories than they really possessed.

This entire hypothesis, however, is open to considerable criticism. Scrutiny of the sources suggests that this has not happened to any appreciable extent, and that there are no grounds for assuming any serious falsification or large scale invention in presenting Muhammad's ancestry. [25]

There is no need to go as far back as Qusayy, father of 'Abd ad-Dar and 'Abd Manaf, whom unanimous historical testimony presents as the unrivalled supreme authority of Mecca both in religion and in political matters.[26]
After the death of Qusayy, 'Abd ad-Dar inherited his father's authority, but he died early and his sons were too young to effectively maintain their rights. 'Abd Manaf, the younger son of Qusayy, had been the powerful rival of his elder brother and ultimately concentrated some of the chief offices of his father in his person after the death of 'Abd ad-Dar. [27]

Eventually the sons of 'Abd Manaf inherited their father's influence; among them, Hashim, though the youngest, was entrusted with the most honourable offices pertaining to the Ka'ba, ar-r:fdha and as-siqaya: providing food and water to the pilgrims. [28]

There are no serious grounds to doubt the accounts given by the early tradition that Hashim achieved great success and glory in his lifetime by his acts of public welfare and by his splendid hospitality extended to the pilgrims visiting the Ka'ba from all parts of Arabia.[29]

When Hashim died, he was replaced by his brother AI-Muttalib. For a short time it seems that the fortunes of the family were declining under the leadership of Al-Muttalib, but they soon recovered under Hashim's son 'Abd al-Muttalib, who had been brought up in Medina with his mother and then brought to Mecca by his uncle Al-Muttalib. [30]

The other sons of Hashim having died without male issue, 'Abd al-Muttalib took charge of the family's affairs, which meant the de facto merger of the Banu Hashim and Banu 'Abd al-Muttalib. This is not the place to discuss whether or not the family of Hashim at that time was as prosperous and influential in Meccan internal affairs as it used to be. The same sources which are too often suspected of being biased in presenting Muhammad's ancestors in unduly favourable circumstances do not hesitate to relate how 'Abd al-Muttalib faced serious set-backs at the beginning of his career.

The grand offices of ar-rifada and as-siqaya secured for the house of Hashim a commanding and permanent influence, and it seems natural that by the virtue of these offices a widespread fame abroad must have guaranteed to the family at least some regard in Mecca. 'Abd al-Muttalib seems to have been a man of initiative and energy, [31] necessary prerequisites to become a man of consequence in the Meccan merchant aristocracy.

He greatly enhanced his position by restoring the ancient well of Zamzam. In the course of time, he became the chief custodian of the Ka'ba and was also regarded as a renowned judge of the customary law.

Because of his position as the sole person in charge of the main services pertaining to the most respected sanctuary of the Peninsula, he became one of the most, if not the most, prominent figures of Mecca. We are told by Ibn Sa'd and Ibn Hashim that “he was the leader of the Quraysh until his death,” and that “his greatness in honour (sharaf) attained an exalted position which no one from amongst his fathers had reached before him. He commanded great respect and the love of his people.” [32]

After 'Abd al-Muttalib's death, his eldest surviving son Abu Talib inherited his father's position. It seems, however, that Abu Talib did not prove himself to be of that same calibre and energy as his father and grandfathers, and consequently the family lost much of that power and command which it had previously enjoyed in the inner circle of Meccan aristocratic society. [33]

Nevertheless it does not necessarily follow that the material decline of the family's fortunes should have deprived it, in the minds of the people, of the memory of their immediate past.

The regard for a successor of three or four illustrious generations could not have faded so soon, especially among groups beyond Mecca. The sanctuary of the Ka'ba, a shrine of extreme antiquity, was a highly important and popular centre of worship in the Peninsula, [34] and its offices of as-siqaya and imarat al-bayt (keeper of the Ka'ba) are noted in the Qur'an. [35]

Supplying the pilgrims with water must have been a lucrative job in Mecca, where water is so scarce, and the water of Zamzam, which soon shared in the sacredness of the sanctuary, was required not only by the yearly pilgrims but also by the huge trade caravans halting at Mecca. [36]

Many early writers have recorded detailed accounts of the universal influence of the Ka'ba, of the vast contacts of the people of Mecca due to its being a centre for the trade caravans from Yaman in the South, from Dumat al-Jandal in the extreme North, and from other far-off places, and of the Ukaz, the greatest of the Arabs' yearly fairs.

It is therefore natural that the honorific services attached to the sanctuary and rendered by the house of Hashim for such a long period must have extended the family's fame and prestige over a very wide area as the pilgrims and the caravans left Mecca.

We can thus conclude that at the time of Muhammad's emergence, his family must have retained the glory and memory of the long-standing sacerdotal lineage of Hashim even though the family's material and political fortunes were at a low ebb at that time.

Psychologically at least, the works and deeds of three generations cannot be obliterated from the consciousness of the people abroad by the sudden decline in wealth and political power of the present generation at Mecca. The Banu Hashim were commonly recognized by the Arabs as the guardians of the Temple, the Ahl al-Bayt, of Mecca. [37]

It was in this family background that Muhammad arose as the Messenger of God and restorer of the true religious Sunna of Abraham and Ishmael[38] which had been corrupted and distorted by the people through the ages. Abraham was not only recognized by the Arabs as their tribal father and progenitor but was also acknowledged by them as the founder of the sanctuary of the Ka'ba and of Mecca.

This tradition was no Muslim legend. If it had not been an accepted truth long before Muhammad's time, it could not have been referred to in the Qur'an as an acknowledged fact; nor could certain spots around the pre-Islamic Ka'ba have been connected, as we know them to have been, with the names of Abraham and Ishmael. [39]

Muhammad was fully conscious of this popular and deep-rooted tradition of Abraham's association with the Ka'ba, with which the Arabs in general and Muhammad's four generations of predecessors in particular were so closely linked. Ibn Khaldun points out that it was regarded as something extraordinary and most honourable if the leadership continued in one and the same family for four generations. [40]

All the factors discussed above combine to form an inseparable background against which the problem of succession to Muhammad has to be considered. As has been pointed out above, this problem must not be considered only from the point of view of seventh century Meccan society, for the Umma of Muhammad at the time of his death was composed of people of a variety of background, values, and ideas, drawn from different parts of Arabia.

It was, therefore, natural that different people should view the problem from different angles. The way in which the problem of succession was solved in the assembly of Saqifa between the death and the burial of the Prophet will be discussed below. It will suffice here to note in passing that the decision taken in Saqifa was also in conformity with the common practice and ancient tradition of the Arabs, at least of one important group from among them.

The two main constituent groups of the Umma at the time of Muhammad's death were the Arabs of northern and central Arabia, of whom the tribe of the Quraysh was the most important and dominant, and the people of South Arabian origin, the Banu Qayla, whose two major branches, the Aws and the Khazraj, were settled in Yathrib.

They were known as the ansar, or “helpers”, because they gave Muhammad and Islam a shelter and a home at the most critical moment of the Prophet's mission. Differences in almost all aspects of life-social, cultural, economic, religious, geographical, and even presumably racial and ancestral- between the Arabs of the South and the North are too well known to need elaboration here at length. Goldziher, [41] Wellhausen, [42] Nicholson, [43] and many other outstanding scholars have thoroughly studied the subject in depth.

It should, however, be pointed out that to consider all the Arabs as one single cultural group is a grave mistake. They had never been so. The North was cut off from the centre by the desert as the South was separated from the rest of Arabia by the Rub 'al-Khali.

Widely different geographical and eco- nomic conditions played their inevitable and natural role in every aspect of development of the two kindred races. The Arabs of northern and central Arabia, the Hijaz, and the highlands of Najd, developed along different lines from the southern Arabs of Al-Yaman in character, way of life, and socio-political and socio-religious institutions. Ag in all other aspects of life, the two groups differed widely from each other in religious sensitivity and feelings.

Among the people of the much more advanced and civilized provinces of South Arabia there was a clear predominance of religious ideas, whereas among the people of the North religious sentiments were evidently lacking. A South Arabian prince, for example, in his votive inscriptions thanked the gods who made him victorious over his enemies, and warriors erected votive memorials to their divine helper for any success they achieved.

In general the thankful and submissive feeling towards the gods is the basic theme of the existent South Arabian monuments. In sharp contrast to this, the warriors of northern Arabia boasted of their heroic courage and the bravery of their companions. They did not feel obliged to thank divine powers for their success, though they did not altogether refuse to acknowledge such powers. [44]

Even the scanty traces of lukewarm religious sentiments amongst the northern Arabs cannot be dissociated from the influence of the southern Arabs settled down in the North. [45] This difference in religious sentiments was naturally reflected in their pattern of tribal leadership. The chiefs or the sheikhs in the North had always been elected on a principle of seniority in age and ability in leadership. There might sometimes be other considerations, such as nobility and lineal prestige, but in the North these were of less importance.

The Arabs in the South were, on the other hand, accustomed to hereditary succession in leadership based on hereditary sanctity. Because of this fact the South Arabian tribes of the Aws and the Khazraj at Yathrib presented an atmosphere more easily conducive to the religious thought which was of great importance in Muhammad's success. Thus we may assume that the majority of the North Arabians understood Islam, at least at the first stage of their acceptance of it, as a socio-political discipline based on the religion taught by the Prophet, since they had been lukewarm to religious impulses.

The Aws and the Khazraj, South Arabian in origin, understood Islam as basically a religious discipline coupled with a socio-political movement, since in their cultural past, though remote, they had been more sensitive to religion. It was only a matter of emphasis in approach and understanding, at least at the first spontaneous response.

When the Prophet died the question of his succession was therefore understood to combine in it both political and religious leadership, a principle well known to the Arabs though naturally with different degrees of emphasis on one or the other of these two aspects. To some it was more political than religious; to others it was more religious than political.

The majority of the Muslims, who readily accepted Abu Bakr, laid more emphasis on the sociopolitical side in accepting the customary procedure of succession to the chieftainship in its new interpretation given by the first caliph, as we shall examine below. They largely, if not solely, disregarded the religious principle and the idea of the hereditary sanctity of a certain house. This assumption is strongly supported by the statement of 'Umar b. al-Khattab to Ibn 'Abbas, “The people do not like having the prophethood. and caliphate combined in the Banu Hishim.” [46]

We must assume that both 'Umar and Abu Bakr were well aware of the importance which the idea of inherited sanctity held in one section of the Umma. At the same time they must have realized that should the election of Abu Bakr be open to doubt, the unity of the Umma would be seriously endangered. They nevertheless considered it necessary to dissociate the caliphate from the priesthood of the Ka'ba, which was enshrined in the hereditary sanctity of the Banu Hashim.

There were others, especially of South Arabian origin; who felt that in Mecca leadership, together with priestly prerogatives, was inherited in the clan of 'Abd Manaf by the Hashimites, [47] though after the death of 'Abd al-Muttalib they were overshadowed by the clan of Umayya in political matters. The rise of Muhammad as the Prophet of God and the supreme authority in Arabia again brought the Banu Hashim to power, a fact acknowledged by Abu Sufyan's surrender to the Prophet at the fall of Mecca.

To some of the Companions, therefore, a normal logical choice of successor would have been another Hashimite, and the entire question of succession to the leadership of the Muslim community was, for them, a problem of great religious significance. In addition to political expediency, deep-rooted religious considerations had to be taken into account by certain of the Companions.

These, whom we may call more legalistically minded individuals, could not agree to the interpretation given by Abu Bakr and his supporters, because, as we shall see below, they understood the leadership of the community as above all a religious office. To them Muhammad was the restorer of the true religion of Abraham and Ishmael, and so in him the hereditary sanctity of his clan reached its highest level. This idea was also strongly supported by the Qur'an when it declared, for example: “Verily, God has chosen Adam and Noah, the family of Abraham and the family of 'Imran above all people.”'[48]

The commentators have all unanimously explained that Muhammad belonged to the “family of Abraham” referred to in this verse. Thus when he died his successor could only be a man from the same family and endowed with the same qualities by the same principles.

In this respect, there must be noted the Qur'anic concept of the exalted and virtuous family, whose favour in the eyes of God derives from their righteous deeds and services in the cause of God. In all ages the prophets have been particularly concerned with ensuring that the special favour of God bestowed upon them for the guidance of man be maintained in their families and pass to their progeny. The Qur'an repeatedly speaks of the prophets praying to God for their progeny and asking Him to continue His guidance in their lineages.

In the answer to these prayers, the verses of the Qur'an bear direct testimony to the special favour of God being granted to the direct descendants of the prophets to keep their fathers' covenants intact, to become true examples of their fathers' righteousness, and to keep fast to the path of righteousness set by these prophets. Four terms are repeatedly used in the Qur'an to express God's special favour for the descendants of the prophets: Dhurriya, Al Ahl, and Qurba.

The word Dhurriya, meaning offspring, progeny, or direct descendant, has been used in thirty-two verses of the Qur'an. It is used either in direct connection with the prophets' own concern that their children should remain on their path or that their work of guidance should be continued through their own progeny. Often the word is used in verses where the prophets claim that God had selected them to become models of righteousness based on their direct descent from other prophets. This concern for a prophet's progeny is reflected in a verse (II, 124) where Abraham was told by God: “I will make you an Imam of the people.” Whereupon Abraham pleads, “And what about my offspring (Dhurriyati)?” God replies, “My covenant will not go to evildoers.”

In a similar verse (XIV, 37) Abraham prays to God: “Oh my Lord God! I have made some of my offspring to dwell in a valley without cultivation by the Sacred House, in order, Oh Lord, that they may establish regular prayer: so fill the hearts of some among men with love towards them and feed them with fruits: so that they may give thanks.”

This prayer is favourably answered when God declares (XIX, 58): “There are they on whom God bestowed His bounties from the prophets of the posterity of Adam; and of those whom we carried with Noah [in the Ark] and of the posterity (Dhurriya) of Abraham and Israel and of those whom we guided and chose.”

The term Al, meaning nearer or nearest relations by descent from the same father or ancestor or a man's family or kinsmen, is used in the Qur'an twenty-six times in connection with the descendants of the prophets or those who succeeded them in guidance and special favour from God. A verse describing Muhammad as belonging to the descendants of Abraham has been quoted above. In another verse (IV, 54) we read: “Or do they envy the people for what God has given them of His grace: But indeed we have given to Abraham's children (Al Ibrahim) the book and the wisdom and we gave them a great kingdom.”

The word Ahl, which is used many times in the Qur'an, has almost the same meaning as Al, though it is also used in a broader sense in referring to the people of a town or inhabitation, a group, or followers. When used in conjunction with the term bayt: Ahl al-bayt, it refers to the immediate descendants of a family or such a family of the same “house”, or bayt. In this compound form, Ahl al-bayt is used in the Qur'an especially in reference to the immediate family of Muhammad. In verse XXXIII, 33, we hear: “And God only wishes to remove from you [all kinds of] uncleanliness, O members of the family [of Muhammad] and thoroughly purify you.”

All the commentators of the Qur'an are unanimous in the opinion that the term Ahl al-bayt in this verse refers to Muhammad's daughter Fatima, his cousin and son-in-law 'Ali, and his two beloved grandsons, Hasan and Husayn.

The fourth term, Qurba (from the root qaruba, nearness), means near or blood relationship, relatives, or kinsmen. As is the case the term Qurba was also used specifically for the immediate relatives of Muhammad. Thus the Qur'an (XLII, 23) reads: 'That is the bounty whereof God gives glad tidings to his servants who believe and do righteous deeds. “Say, [O Muhammad] I do not ask any reward from you for this [apostleship] except the love of [my] relatives.”

Commenting on this verse, the commentators are again unanimous in their opinion that the word Qurba refers to Muhammad's relatives—Fatima, 'Ali, Hasan, and Husayn.

The only point of disagreement arises in that the Sunni commentators include the wives of the Prophet, whereas the Shi'i writers do not.

The total number of verses that mention special favour requested for and granted to the families of the various prophets by God runs to over a hundred in the Qur'an. From this we may draw two conclusions. If one accepts the axiom that the Qur'an was revealed in terms understandable in the cultural atmosphere of seventh-century Arabia, then it is obvious that the idea of the sanctity of a prophet's family was a commonly accepted principle at that time. Even more important is the fact that the Qur'an's constant repetition of this idea must have left the impression among some of the Muslims that Muhammad's family had a religious prerogative over others.

Neither Banu Taym b. Murra, the clan of Abu Bakr, nor Banu 'Adi b. Ka'b, the people of Umar, had ever been regarded with esteem on any religious grounds, thus those who laid stress on the religious principle could not accept them as candidates for succession to Muhammad. The candidate could come only from the Banu Hashim, and amongst them the figure of 'Ali was by far the most prominent. Re too was the great-grandson of Hashim and the grandson of 'Abd al-Muttalib.

He was the son of Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle, who had given the Prophet the care and love of the father Muhammad had lost before birth. 'Ali was the nearest and closest associate of Muhammad, for the Prophet had acted as his guardian during the famine of Mecca, and he had subsequently adopted him as a brother both before the Hijra and again in Medina. [49]

He was the first male to embrace Islam, [50] Khadija being the first woman. He was also the husband of Fatima, the Prophet's only surviving daughter, and by her fathered two of the Prophet's grandsons, Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn, both of whom Muhammad loved dearly.

It seems that these inherent personal qualities and virtues secured 'Ali a unique and advantageous place over all other family members and companions of Muhammad, and earned him a group of friends who were devoted to him with a special zeal and consideration even during the lifetime of the Prophet.

Perhaps it is because of this that the Shi'a claim the existence of Shi'ism even in the lifetime of the Prophet; the earliest heresiographers, Sa'd al-Ash'ari and An-Nawbakhti, clearly state that Shi'ism (in the sense of a particular regard and appreciation of 'Ali's personal merits) had already appeared in Muhammad's lifetime. [51]

Moreover, this idea of 'Ali's superior qualifications for the caliphate was further strengthened by a series of events which took place during the Prophet's life in which he showed some special consideration for 'Ali. A few of these should be pointed out as illustrations of 'Ali's growth in prestige and favour:

1) At the very beginning of his mission, when the verse “Warn your tribe, the nearest kinsmen” (XXVI, 214) was revealed (about three years after Muhammad's first revelation and the conversion of Khadija, 'Ali, and Abu Bakr), the Prophet gathered all the Banu 'Abd al-Muttalib and informed them of his mission.

Explaining his task, he asked for support and help in furthering the cause. Instead of assistance, the Prophet received only ridicule; the only exception was 'Ali, who, though only thirteen years old, gave the Prophet his enthusiastic support. [52]

2) The prerogative of the religious brotherhood between 'Ali and Muhammad, which has already been mentioned above, must be taken into special account in this series of events The Prophet adopted 'Ali as his brother in faith (ukhuwwa) both before the Hijra and again in Medina. This was such a recognized historical fact that no historian has denied it.

3) 'Ali's position can only have been elevated in the eyes of the Companions when he was appointed by Muhammad as the standard bearer at both Badr and Khaybar and in other wars. [53]

4) The nomination of 'Ali by the Prophet as his deputy at Medina during the expedition to Tabuk was another important record to 'Ali's credit. [54] It was on this occasion that the famous tradition is reported in which Muhammad said to 'Ali, “You are to me what Aaron was to Moses except that there will be no Prophet after me.” [55]

This tradition attached to the event of Tabuk has been recorded by almost all historians and traditionists, and when we see that Muhammad was referring to many similarities in his person and mission with other great prophets of the past, we find no difficulty in accepting this tradition.

In one of the several Qur'anic passages dealing with this subject (XX, 2032), Moses asks of God: “And give me a minister from my family, Aaron, my brother; add to my strength through him, and make him share my task.”

Muhammad's comparison of himself with Moses would thus have been incomplete without an Aaron, and obviously no other person in his family but 'Ali could serve him as Aaron.

5) Yet another very important event was the communication of the chapter of al-Bara'a (Qur'an, IX). In the ninth year of the Hijra, the Prophet sent Abu Bakr to lead the people in the Hajj. After Abu Bakr's departure to Mecca the chapter of Bara'a was revealed to the Prophet to communicate to the people, especially to the polytheists.

When people asked the Prophet whether he would dispatch the chapter to Abu Bakr to deliver it on his behalf, he replied, “No, I will not send it except through someone from amongst the people of my family (rajul-un min ahli bayti).” The Prophet then called 'Ali and ordered him to take his own camel and go to Mecca at once and deliver the Qur'anic message to the people on his behalf. [56]

There are no serious grounds to doubt the authenticity of these events, which have been recorded by writers of all schools of thought and which also seem plausible in their context. Even if one is inclined to extreme caution and scepticism, it cannot be denied that these events in favour of 'Ali were in such wide circulation that the majority of historians and traditionists from the earliest times had to record them.
In this series of events, the famous but controversial tradition of Ghadir Khum, upon which the Shi'a place the utmost importance, has been intentionally ignored. This event is named after a place called Ghadir Khum, a pool or a marsh with some shady trees, situated only a few miles from Mecca on the road to Medina, from where people disperse to their different destinations.

When Muhammad was returning from his Farewell Pilgrimage he stopped at Ghadir Khum on 18 Dhu'l-Hijja (10 March 632) to make an announcement to the pilgrims who accompanied him from Mecca and who were to disperse from this junction. By the orders of the Prophet, a special dais or pulpit made of branches of the trees was erected for him. After the noon prayer the Prophet sat on the pulpit and made his last public address to the largest gathering before his death three months later.
Taking 'Ali by the hand, Muhammad asked his followers whether he was not superior in authority and person (awla) to the believers themselves. The crowd cried out in one voice: “It is so, O Apostle of God.” He then declared: “He of whom I am the mawla [the patron, master, leader, friend?], of him 'Ali is also the mawla (man kuntu mawlahu fa 'Ali-un mawlahu). O God, be the friend of him who is his friend, and be the enemy of him who is his enemy (Allahumma wali man walahu wa 'adi man adahu).”

As far as the authenticity of the event itself is concerned, it has hardly ever been denied or questioned even by the most conservative Sunni authorities, who have themselves recorded it. Most noteworthy among them are Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal in his Musnad, Tirmidhi, Nasa'i, Ibn Maja, Abu Da'ud and almost all other Sunan writers, Ibn al-Athir in his Usd al-Ghaba Ibn 'Abd al-Barr in his Isti 'ab, followed by all other writers of biographical works and even Ibn 'Abd Rabbih in his 'Iqd al-Farid, and Jahiz. in his 'Uthmaniyya. [57]

The traditions of Ghadir are so abundantly reported and so commonly attested by hundreds of different transmitters belonging to all schools of thought that it would be futile to doubt their authenticity. Ibn Kathir, [58] a most staunch supporter of the Sunni viewpoint, has devoted seven pages to this subject and has collected a great number of different isnads from which the tradition is narrated.

It is also Ibn Kathir who informs us that the famous historian at-Tabari, in a two-volume unfinished work entitled Kitab al-Fada'il (mentioned also by Yaqut in his Irshad, VI, p.452), wrote in full details the Prophet's discourse in favour of 'Ali at Ghadir Khum. A modern scholar, Husayn 'Ali Mahfuz, in his penetrating researches on the subject of Ghadir Khum, has recorded with documentation that this tradition has been narrated by at least 110 Companions, 84 tabi'un, 355 'ulama', 25 historians, 27 traditionists, II exegesists, I8 theologians, and 5 philologists.[59] Most of them were later counted by the Sunnis as among their own number.

Horovitz [60] and Goldziher [61], in their studies on the tradition of Ghadir Khum, state that the oldest evidence of this tradition is the verses of Kumayt (died 126/743-4), which they consider undoubtedly genuine. The refusal of these two scholars to accept any evidence before Kumayt is based on their sceptical assumption that the verses of the Prophet's poet, Hassan b. Thabit, composed on the spot, might not be genuine. However, the Shi'i sources, and also some of the Sunni authorities, claim that the oldest evidence is the verse of Hassan b. Thabit, which the poet, with the Prophet's approbation, instantly composed and recited [62] when the people were congratulating 'Ali on the occasion.

Keeping in view the fact that Hassan was accompanying the Prophet at his historical first pilgrimage after the migration, and the fact that the poet used to compose and recite verses on all noteworthy occasions of the Prophet's activities, it is highly improbable that this event should have passed unrecorded by Hassan, the official poet-reporter of Muhammad.

The event is, however, not recorded by some of those Sources. which are commonly used for the study of the life of the Prophet, such as Ibn Hashim, Tabari, and Ibn Sa'd. They either pass in silence over Muhammad's stop at Ghadir Khum, or, if they mention it, say nothing of this tradition.

Veccia Vaglieri explains the attitude of these few writers in that they “evidently feared to attract the hostility of the Sunnis, who were in power, by providing material for the polemic of the Shi'is, who used these words to support their thesis of 'Ali's right to the caliphate. Consequently, the western biographers of Muhammad, whose work is based on these sources, equally make no reference to what happened at Ghadir Khum.

It is, however, certain that Muhammad did speak in this place and utter the famous sentence, for the account of this event has been preserved, either in concise form or in detail, not only by Ya'qubi, whose sympathy for the 'Alid cause is well known, but also in the collections of traditions which are considered as canonical, especially in the Musnad of Ibn Hanbal; and the hadiths are so numerous and so well attested by the different isnads that it does not seem possible to reject them.” [63]

The bone of contention between the Sunnis and the Shi'is is not, however, and never has been, the authenticity of the event of Ghadir Khum, nor the declaration of the Prophet in favour of 'Ali, as quoted above; the real disagreement is in the meaning of the word mawla used by the Prophet. The Shi'a unequivocally take the word in the meaning of leader, master, and patron, and therefore the explicitly nominated successor of the Prophet. The Sunnis, on the other hand, interpret the word mawla in the meaning of a friend, or the nearest kin and confidant. [64]

No doubt the richness of meaning of many an Arabic word and the resulting ambiguity does render both the interpretations equally valid. The Sunnis, while accepting the tradition, assert that in that sentence the Prophet simply meant to exhort his followers to hold his cousin and the husband of his only surviving daughter in high esteem and affection.

Further, the Sunnis explain the circumstance which necessitated the Prophet's exhortation in that some people were murmuring against 'Ali due to his harsh and indifferent treatment in the distribution of the spoils of the expedition of Al-Yaman, which had just taken place under 'Ali's leadership, and from where he, along with those who participated in the expedition, directly came to Mecca to join the Prophet at the Hajj.

To dispel these ill-feelings against his son-in-law, the Prophet spoke in this manner. [65] Accepting this explanation as such, the fact still remains that this declaration of the Prophet in such an extraordinary manner, equating 'Ali in authority and person with himself, does provide a strong basis for the Shi'i claims.

Taking for granted the controversial character in interpretation of the Ghadir tradition, the events mentioned above could have been understood by some of the Prophet's Companions as indicative of his inclination towards 'Ali, though he did not or could not nominate him explicitly, perhaps because of the old North Arabian custom of leaving the selection of a leader to the people. A commonly suggested obstacle in the way of 'Ali is said to have been his comparatively young age at the time of Muhammad's death.

However, our sources do not fail to point out that, though the “Senate” (Nadwa) of pre-Islamic Mecca was generally a council of elders only, the sons of the chieftain Qusayy were privileged to be exempted from this age restriction and were admitted to the council despite their youth. In later times more liberal concessions seem to have been in vogue; Abu Jahl was admitted despite his youth, and Hakim b. Hazm was admitted when he was only fifteen or twenty years old. [66] Ibn 'Abd Rabbih tells us, “There was no monarchic king over the Arabs of Mecca in the Jahiliya. So whenever there was a war, they took a ballot among chieftains and elected one as 'King', were he a minor or a grown man.

Thus on the day of Fijar, it was the turn of the Banu Hashim, and as a result of the ballot Al-'Abbas, who was then a mere child, was elected, and they seated him on the shield.” [67] At the time of Muhammad's death 'Ali was at least thirty-three years old, though in some other sources his age is given as thirty-six.

In conclusion, the idea that the question of the succession was primarily religious, rather than merely political, the popular notion of the hereditary sanctity of the Banu Hashim, coupled with the events which took place during the lifetime of the Prophet in favour of 'Ali; led to the crystallization of a point of view concerning the succession to the leadership of the community in which a number of Muhammad's Companions felt that 'Ali was the most suitable person to keep the covenant intact. In the heated debates of the Saqifa incident, right after the Prophet's death, these Companions did not hesitate to voice their opinions. The resulting disagreement, to which we now turn, marks the beginning of what was eventually to develop into a permanent division of the Umma into Sunni and Shi'i.

Notes:
[1] W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Political Thought (Edinburgh, 1968), p.26
[2] See Lane, Lexicon, IV, pp.1632 f.
[3] e.g. XIX, 69; XXVIII, 15; XXXVII, 83
[4] Ibn Qutayba, Rasa'il al-Bulagha', p. 360
[5] Aghani, I, p.45
[6] Aghani, I, p.72; Yaqut, Mu'jam al-Buldan, III, p.519
[7] Aghani, X, p.300
[8] Diwan an-Nabhiga adh-Dhubyani, ed. Shukri Faysal (Beirut, 1968), p.165
[9] Mufaddaliyat, XCIII, V.14
[10] Mufaddaliyat, XXXI, v.4: “By God, my cousin, thou art not better in stock than I, (La afdalta fi hasabi)”
[11] Ibn Qutayba, op. cit., p.348; 'Iqd, III, p.332
[12] Aghani, I, p.31
[13] 'Amr b. Kulthum, Mu'allaqa, vv. 40, 52, 55; Mufaddaliyat, XL, v.44; LXXXVII, v.2; Zuhayr b. Abi Salma, Mu'allaqa, v, p.26; Aghani, X, p.300
[14] Labid, Mu'allaqa, v.83; 'Amr b. Kulthum, Mu'allaqa, v.52
[15] Aghani, XXII, p. iii
[16] Labid, op. cit., v. 8I
[17] Lane, Lexicon, V, pp.2020 ff
[18] Yaqut, op. cit., III, p.47I
[19] Qur'an, CVI, 3
[20] Ibn Hisham, I, p.126; 'Iqd, III, p.333
[21] On this see R. B. Serjeant's “Haram and Hawtah, The Sacred Enclave in Arabia”, in Melanges Taha Husain, ed. 'Abd al-Rahman Badawi (Cairo, 1962), pp.42 f.; and “The Saiyids of Hadramawt”, BSOAS, XXI (London, 1957); also Ibn Durayd, Ishtiqaq, p.173
[22] Ibn Durayd, op. cit., p.238; Aghani; XIX, p.128; Iqd, III, pp.331 if.
[23] Ibn Hisham, I, pp. 143, 145; 'Iqd, III, pp. 313, 333 if; Ibn Durayd, loc. cit.; Serjeant, “Haram and Hawtah”, p.43.
[24] Serjeant, loc. cit.
[25] See W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford, 1953), p.31; Serjeant, “The Saiyids of Hadramawt”, p.7
[26] Ibn Hisham, I, pp.131 ff.; Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, I, pp.64 ff.; Ibn Sa'd, I, pp. 6q ff.; 'Iqd, III, pp. 312 f.
[27] Ibn Sa'd, I, p. 74. Azraqi, Akhbar, I, p.66, states that 'Abd Manaf possessed not Only ar-rifada and al-siqaya, but also Al-qiyada, leadership of Mecca.
[28] Ibn Hisham, I, pp. 143 f.; Ibn Sa'd, I, p.78. Azraqi, Akhbar, I, p.67, says that after 'Abd Manaf, the offices of ar-rifada and as-siqaya passed to Hashim, and that of al-qiyada was given to 'Abd Shams.
[29] Ibn Hisham, loc. cit.; Ibn Sa'd, loc. cit
[30] Ibn Hisham, I, pp.145 f.; Ibn Sa'd, I, pp. 8I if.
[31] Cf. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p.31
[32] Ibn Sa'd, I, p. 85; Ibn Hisham, I, p.150
[33] Cf. EI2 article “Abu Talib”
[34] A recurrent theme in the Qur'an, best illustrated in II, I26-7
[35] IX, 19
[36] See Muhammad Hamidullah, “The City State of Mecca”, IC, XII (1938), p. 266
[37] Ibn Hisham, I, p.145; Tabari, I, pp.2786 f.
[38] Qur'an, II, 135-7
[39] ibid., II, 125
[40] Ibn Khaldun, Proleg., I, p.289. Cf. Von Kremer, Staatsidee des Islam; trans. Khuda Bukhsh, Politics in Islam (Lahore, 1920), p. IO
[41] Muhammedanische Studien, trans. S. M. Stern and C. R. Barber, Muslim Studies (London, 1967), I, pp.79-100
[42] The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall, trans. M. Weir (Calcutta, 1927), passim
[43] A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge, 1969), pp. I ff
[44] Goldziher, Muslim Studies, I, pp.12-13
[45] ibid., p.14
[46] Tabari, I, p.2769 f.
[47] Most of the supporters of 'Ali in the early disagreement over the caliphate were of South Arabian origin and were quite clear in their Defence of 'Ali's claims on religious grounds.
[48] III, 33
[49] Ibn Hisham, I, pp.262 f.; II, pp.150 f.; Baladhuri, I, p.270; Ibn Habib, Muhabbar, p.70
[50] According to Ibn Ishaq, 'Ali was ten years old at the time when Muhammad received his first revelation and was the first who prayed with the Prophet and Khadija (Ibn Hisham, I, p.262;
Baladhuri, I, p. 112). Those comparatively few early writers who mention Abu Bakr as the first Muslim among men do so because of 'Ali's young age. See Isti' ab, III, Pp.1090 ff., which gives numerous traditions with different isnads supporting the view that 'Ali was the first male to accept Islam and to pray with Muhammad, whereas Abu Bakr was the first to publicly announce his Islam.
[51] Sa'd al-Ash'ari, Firaq, p. 15; Nawbakhti, Firaq, p.23
[52] Mas'udi, Muruj, II, p.277. Also See commentaries of Tabari Ibn Kathir, and Tha'labi under verse 214, Sura XXVI
[53] Ibn Hisham, II, p.264; III, p.349; Isti 'ab, III, p.1097; 'Iqd, IV, p.312
[54] Ibn Hisham, IV, p.163
[55] Ibn Hisham, loc. cit.; Bukhari, Sahih, II, p.194; Nawbakhti, Firaq, p.19; 'Iqd, IV, p.311; Isti 'ab, III, pp.1099 f.
[56] Ibn Hisham, IV, p.190 (repeated by the majority of historians and traditionists)
[57] See Veccia Vaglieri, EI2 Art. “Ghadir Khum”, where there are mentioned exact references to all of the above works except 'Iqd, IV, p.311
[58] Al-Bidaya wa 'l-Nihaya (Cairo, I348-51 AH), V, pp. 208-I4
[59] Ta'rikh ash-Shi'a (Karbala, n.d.), p.77. In modern times numerous voluminous works on Ghadir Khum have appeared, thus Amini's Al-Ghadir in 38 volumes, and AI-Musawi's 'Abaqat al-Anwar, in 34 volumes; all dealing with the rijal of the tradition.
[60] EI1 article “Kumayt”
[61] Cf. EI2 article “Ghadir Khum”, Bibliography
[62] Amini, Ghadir, II, p.32; also see 'Amili, A'yan ash-Shi'a, III/i, pp. 524-32
[63] E12 article “Ghadir Khum”
[64] Ibn Kathir, loc. cit.
[65] ibid.
[66] Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, I, p.65; Ibn Durayd, Ishtiqaq, p.97
[67] 'Iqd, III, p.315

The Number of the Shi‘a Imams

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah as-Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: As we know, the true Twelver Imami sect is called "twelver" (ithna `ashariyya) since its followers believe that after the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), his successors were twelve people. And among all of his ‘ummah (community), they are the sole group who hold this belief; thus, the traditions about the twelve Imams which both Shi‘a and Sunnis have narrated – and whose origin from the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) is undeniable – can only be applied to the Shi‘a sect among all Muslims. Naturally, the true sect will be limited to this group. In spite of all this, it is said that from some traditions – a few of which have been narrated in the book of Sulaim – it is possible to understand that the number of the Imams is thirteen, and this view has also been attributed to Ibn Sahl al-Nawbakhti. If, as it is said, a tradition with this content exists (or if Nawbakhti himself held this view, though this appears unlikely), how can it be explained and affirmed?

ANSWER: We have given sufficient explanation about the tradition or traditions that indicate that the number of Imams (peace be upon them) is thirteen in the treatise "Clarity of Vision for One Who Follows the Twelve Imams." There, we have clarified that the a tradition with this meaning does not exist; moreover, even if such a tradition were to exist, it is a tradition with a single narrator and with regard to principles of religion, beliefs, and issues in which attaining certainty is essential, traditions with single narrators are not relied upon.

In such an instance, only a firm rational argument or a tradition that is consecutively narrated (mutawatir) and certain to have originated from an infallible can be relied upon.

Furthermore, traditions that are mutawatir and have even passed the limits of tawatur (consecutive narration) indicate that the number of the Imams is twelve. In such a situation, if a single non-certain tradition is found in opposition to all these traditions, what creditability can it have, and how can a researcher rely on it? In addition, in the Musnad of Ahmad alone, it has been narrated through thirty-odd chains of narrators from the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) that the number of Imams (peace be upon them) is twelve, and in the Sahih of Muslim this point has been narrated through eight chains, and likewise in the remaining collections, Sahihs, Sunans (books of the sunnah), and books of the Ahl al-Sunnat, this topic has been referred to numerous times.

In Shi‘a books as well traditions have been narrated with hundreds of chains that the Imams will be twelve, all of which were narrated by well-known companions and followers (tabi`in) up to two centuries before the birth of the twelfth Imam Mahdi (may Allah hasten his return) (peace be upon him), and in reality this is counted as a type of prediction and information about the future.

In spite of all this, it was said that a tradition has been narrated from Sulaim that the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) said to Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him): "You and twelve people from your progeny are the true Imams."

The reality is that in the present text and the reliable texts that before our time were in the possession of the scholars, this tradition did not exist. Moreover, there are many traditions in the book of Sulaim ibn Qays itself that explicitly mention the Imams and their names as twelve people, and have specified the names of those twelve personages from Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him) to Imam Mahdi (may Allah hasten his return) (peace be upon him) in the same order in which the Shi‘a believe.
This book, written in the first century after the Hijra, is reliable and the sum of its material clearly establishes the truth of the Imami school, since it contains news about Imams who were not even born in that time. Firm signs and evidence indicates the correctness of this book.

Now, if we suppose the book contains such a tradition, that tradition can be interpreted in light of other books of traditions. That is, the intent of the tradition is to indicate the number of the Imams and that they are from the progeny of ‘Ali (peace be upon him), and since the majority – eleven out of twelve – of the Imams are from his progeny, it was explained in these words – which, it is likely, have not even been narrated in entirety.

Ibn Nadim attributed this view opposing the traditions regarding twelve Imams to Abu Sahl Nawbakhti, which appears not to be correct, since Abu Sahl Nawbakhti is not a person to express such an opinion, which has no evidence worthy of consideration. In Shi‘a books of biographies and rijal (biographies of the narrators of hadith), in which the Nawbakhti family has been mentioned in detail, such a view has not been related regarding Abu Sahl in the section pertaining to him or to others, all have praised his school of thought, belief, and action. It appears these are the same types of mistakes that occur in the books of biographies and sects, and the writers of which have passed over them out of carelessness.

Attributing such baseless beliefs to well-known individuals has no result other than to mislead uninformed or ill-informed people.

In any case, the issue of Mahdawiyyah (messianism) and concealment and the remaining issues exclusive to the twelfth Imam (peace be upon him) have been in discussion since the beginning of Islam. Rather, in accordance to what is in the extant Torah and Bible, the precedent of this belief has roots in Divine religions previous to Islam and in the Old and New Testaments.

Principality of Reason or Narration in Specifying the Imam (peace be upon him)

QUESTION: In the issue of Imamah, between reason and narration, which is given precedence? In other words, are the issues pertaining to the topic of Imamah primarily provable through intellectual proofs or narrated proofs?

ANSWER: As can be understood from the question itself, issues are of two types. One type are the issues that are ascertained through reason and are accepted through application of logical procedures and intellectual proofs, such as proving the existence of Allah, His essential attributes of perfection, and the necessity of prophecy, i.e. the proof of prophecy in general. The other type are those issues that are proved solely through narration, meaning that there is no way of proving them except revelation and relation by a truthful relater, that is, a prophet or Imam whose prophecy or Imamah is already established. Among these issues, there are also some issues that can be established in both ways. Of course, in this case the narrated proofs are a form of guidance towards the intellectual proofs.

The researcher must be well attentive to this aspect of issues and must see which discussion can be established through reason, which through narration alone, and which through both methods. And in each case, he should commence according to the method peculiar to that issue so that he can reach an appropriate conclusion. Otherwise, if he wishes to enter into an exclusively narrational issue through reason, it is natural that he will not reach a valid conclusion.

It is possible that some may raise a question regarding whether the principality of reason takes precedence in the issue of Imamah over the principality of narration or not.

The answer is that that in the issue of Imamah, like the issue of prophecy and the conditions of a prophet, proving the principle of general Imamah, i.e. proving the principle of a need for the existence of the Imam and the conditions of the Imam, is accomplished through reasoning. Of course, if the issue of Imamah were among the issues that are outside the limits of understanding of human reason and reasoning did not understand it independently, it could be proved by narrational evidence alone, i.e. the guidance of the Prophet. This is because reliance on narrational evidence with regard to the principle of Imamah, as opposed to the principle of prophecy, does not involve circular reasoning, though in the issue of prophecy it involves circular reasoning.

Thus, the narrational proofs of Imamah can also be regarded, similar to the narrational proofs of the principle of prophecy, as guidance to the decree of reason.

Issues such as the necessity of infallibility, how the Imam is appointed, and the fact that this affair has not been delegated to the people are principles pertaining to reason. And existing narrational proofs affirm this decree of reason.

It is obvious that with groups who, like the Asha’ira, do not believe in rational good and evil, discussion can only be held through those narrational proofs. Some of the effects and benefits of the existence of the Imam and his distinctions can only be proved through narrational proofs, just as these effects and unique traits are proved for the Prophet through narrational proofs.

In the issue of the specific Imamah (the Imamah of a particular person) as well, like the specific prophecy in which explicit declaration by the previous prophet is a proof of the prophecy of the following prophet, the prophet’s declaration of the Imam’s Imamah and likewise the declaration by the previous Imam of the Imamah of the following Imam is a proof of his Imamah. There is this difference that the principle way of establishing prophecy is a miracle, since the only true way to establish the prophecy of the first prophet is through a miracle and this is the only reliable evidence of the claim of prophecy, though the prophets after his prophecy can be established both by declaration of the previous prophets and by miracle, and the Divine way has also been to send prophets along with miracles, since the establishment of prophecy through a miracle is comprehensible by all.

However, the method of declaration by the previous prophet is only an authoritative proof for believers in that previous prophet. It is for this reason that we say that the method of establishment by miracle is a general way, which is an authoritative proof for all. Still, establishing the occurrence of a miracle at the hands of a prophet is limited to narrational methods for one who is absent from the time and place of occurrence of the miracle. Certainly, the Glorious Qur’an is the only miracle whose establishment has no need of narrational proofs, since it is existent, just as the explicit declaration of the Qur’an that it is impossible to bring its like indicates that it is a miracle.

In the issue of Imamah, the Imamah of the first Imam is established solely by the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) declaration, and since it has been proven in the discussion of general Imamah that the Imamah of the Imam is through specification by the Prophet by command of Allah, the miracle that is manifested by the Imam, just as it is an independent proof of the truth of claim of Imamah, is also a proof of the declaration of the prophet, if such a declaration by the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) is not in our hands. Reliance on rational proofs in the issue of specific Imamah is in order to establish the existence of a specific declaration.

For example: it can be said that it is obligatory for the prophet, in that Allah, in his absolute wisdom, has commanded the prophet to explicitly declare the Imamah, to specify and introduce the Imam after himself, even if that declaration is no longer accessible by us or has become ambiguous or its purport has become subject to doubt. Since the claim of a declaration has not been made except with regard to a specific personality – Imam ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him) – rationally, the person specified by Allah and the Prophet is not other than ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him).

Or it can be said that since the condition of the Imam – who is appointed by Allah and the prophet to lead humankind in religious and worldly affairs – is infallibility, and the claim of infallibility has not been made for anyone except ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him), rationally ‘Ali ibn Abi Taib (peace be upon him) is the appointed and infallible Imam.

Similarly, with regard to the twelfth Imam it is said that according to narrational proofs, the world is never without an Imam and Proof (hujjat) of Allah – apparent or hidden – and in this long period of over a thousand years, the chain of Imamah is not to be severed. And since the claim of Imamah has not been forwarded for anyone other than that personage, or if it has been made its invalidity has been proved, aside from him, who is in concealment, no one else is the Imam and he is the Imam. And if he is not the Imam, other objections discussed previously in the issue of the general Imamah will once again arise.

This is though there is no justification for raising them, since the result of such discussions leads to matters such as the performance of evil by Allah, the Wise, and so forth, from the like of which Allah’s essence is pure and free.

Shi‘a Ideology’s Practicality

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah as-Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: Keeping in view the fact that aside from the short five-year period of Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him), the administration of society was not in the hands of the Imams (peace be upon them), to what extent is the system of religious government according to the Shi‘a view practicable and able to be implemented in society?

ANSWER: Shi‘a thought is a logical school that has and has always had the possibility of being implemented in the core of its teachings.

The Shi‘a view about the issue of Imamah is that after the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) the religious and political leader of society must be someone who knows better than all else all the laws and principles the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) brought for the people from Allah. Without doubt during the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) none but ‘Ali (peace be upon him) possessed this distinction, and therefore the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) selected ‘Ali (peace be upon him) to succeed him and then introduced the rest of the Shi‘a Imams, who are twelve people in all, to the people and appointed them his successors.

Certainly, this was not because of their physical relationship with the Prophet; rather their spiritual attributes, intellectual abilities and so forth became the reason that Allah chose them alone from among the people to succeed the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), just as the Qur’an says about the successors of the prophets as well:

إِنَّ اللهَ اصْطَفَى آدَمَ وَنُوْحًا وَآلَ إِبْرَاهِيمَ وَآلَ عِمْرَانَ عَلَى الْعَالميِنَ

."Verily Allah chose Adam, Nuh, the family of Ibrahim, and the family of `Imran over all the people of the world."[17]

If the people want to tread the true path in all matters, they must follow them and regard them as wali al-amr (guardians of the believers’ affairs), must consider it obligatory to obey them, and must respect their commands just like the commands of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). At the same time, the laws and policies broached in the Shi‘a school are not imaginary and unreal affairs that could be said to be unable to be implemented. Rather, they are the most genuine Islamic teachings that, if conditions are available, can be implemented in every society.

If we see that during a portion of history some people prevented their political aspect from being realized, it does not mean that they cannot be implemented. Rather, since these laws were formulated in view of the realities of the existence of man, all human societies are in search of them, and according to the belief of Shi‘as, will in the end reach them. This undertaking will be accomplished at the end of time through the last Divine authority (hujjat), and human society will be administered by a single system and law.

In addition, what is fundamental in the call of the prophets is to explain the realities and the path of salvation and the way that leads to ultimate success, which must be announced to the people even in case of certainty that it will not be accepted:

إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورَا

"Surely We have guided him to the Path, whether he be grateful or ungrateful."[18]

This is because the responsibility of the prophet is to propagate the Divine laws, among which is Imamah; it is the people who must accept the prophets’ invitation and cooperate with the prophets and Imams (peace be upon them) to make available the opportunity to put it in practice.

The conduct of the Imams (peace be upon them) and their policies were all practical, bearing results, and at the same time realistic.

For example, the conduct of Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon them) was in light of the conditions of existing realities and the conduct of Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (peace be upon him) and Imam Husayn Sayyid al-Shuhada’ (peace be upon him) was the same way. They performed all their actions while keeping in view existing conditions. For example, if Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (peace be upon him) made peace with Mu`awiyah, he took into consideration all the aspects of the issue and in those conditions saw no better course of action. And Imam Husayn (peace be upon him) consciously refused to pledge allegiance to Yazid, went to Karbala’ and accepted those sorrowful difficulties, and in the end reached his purpose.

Yes, if Imam Husayn (peace be upon him) had been in a different situation and had seen that the path and provisions for taking charge of the government are ready, he would still have moved to acquire his right and repel the undeserving from the khilafah of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). But conditions in his time were such that he knew that the situation is not suitable for reaching this aim. Thus, with the great and unparalleled mission which he implemented he created a reawakening in the Muslim world, and as long as the world remains the reawakening of Islam’s reviver will remain alive.
He, although apparently he did not prevent Yazid and all the usurpers of the khilafah who came after him from usurping the khilafah, internally turned people’s hearts away from them and put to the wind Mu`awiyah’s plots to defeat Islam. He performed such a deed that afterwards it was said, "Islam is Muhammadi in origin and Husayni in continuance."

The remaining Imams (peace be upon him), too, performed well the responsibility with which they were entrusted in protecting Islam, keeping in mind existing conditions.

Belief in the appearance of the savior and twelfth Imam gave comfort to the Shi‘as and created a spirit of resistance, patience, and perseverance in the people and prevented power-seeking, despair, and carelessness towards religion. It is a belief that has been explicitly mentioned in the core of Shi‘a teachings and reliable traditions, and this principle received more attention during the time of Imam al-Baqir (peace be upon him) and as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) and people’s inclination to it increased in light of the transgressions the usurping rulers committed.

The people understood that if some indifferent individuals during the time of the companions – that is, after the Prophet’s demise (peace be upon him and his family) – conjectured that introducing change in the principle of Imamah would not bring much change in the Islamic agenda, in reality it caused a major tragedy and caused Islam to veer from its true course and the usurped khilafah became a means of hedonism and easy living for a few and of fettering the people and a return to the customs of Caesar, Kisra, and other Satanic powers.

This matter strengthened their faith in the principle of Imamah and they understood that it is only this school of thought that can bring Islam’s agenda to fruition and end that deplorable situation.

Thus, the becoming conduct of the Imams (peace be upon them) on the on hand and the oppressive behavior of the usurpers of the khilafah on the other caused the Shi‘a school of thought to become ever more influential in people’s hearts, and as a result their inclination to the Imams (peace be upon the) began to increase. It is because of this that in spite of the efforts of the rulers, Imam as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) was so popular among the masses that the Shi‘a themselves are recognized through him.

Shi‘a Positions with Respect to the Usurping Rulers

QUESTION: How were the stands of the Shi‘a with respect to the rulers and on what basis were they taken?

ANSWER: The positions of the Shi‘a have always been on the basis of protecting Islam’s interests, preserving the religion, and denying the legitimacy of oppressive and usurping governments, and they have always endeavored, in the form of an opposing front, to establish a powerful Islamic government on the foundation of religious rule.

In explaining the religious concepts, the Shi‘a follow only the Qur’an and sunnah and conduct themselves in accordance with the Qur’anic injunction:

وَجَادِلهْـُمْ بِالَّتيِ هِيَ أَحْسَنُ

"And debate with them in the best manner."[19]

by honorable discussion and debate, and also, in instances, on the basis of taqiyyah (dissimulation) which becomes necessary in certain conditions in all times and places. They do this so that they can guide others to true Islam and the true concepts of the religion and remove society from under the yolk of oppressive and usurping rulers and merciless officials.

It is thus that we see that the Shi‘a have throughout history always had uprisings against the armed powers.

The Shi‘a believe in the Imamah of those whose names and infallibility were explicitly mentioned by the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and in taking positions they always act on the basis of Islamic teachings and the conduct of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). In situations when the right conditions do not exist, such as a portion of the life of Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him), they give preference to silence and apparently sitting aside over rebellion, or conduct themselves like Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (peace be upon him) to save Islam from the threat of splintering.

However, the event of Karbala’ and refusal of Sayyid al-Shuhada’ (peace be upon him) to pledge allegiance to Yazid was an uprising the like of which neither had precedence nor will be seen after it.
That movement was a model and path-opening agenda of struggle for Muslims.

That uprising, though apparently it was crushed and defeated, in reality was a successful uprising, since it revived the true Islam and brushed aside the factors of hopelessness and despair from the faces of the Shi‘a and became a cause of their constancy of thought and strength of spirit. After that, no uprising or movement took place among the Shi‘a that was crushed and changed hopes to despair, and the infallible leaders of the Shi‘a knew, as per the traditions and through the (special) knowledge of the Imamah which they possessed, that belief and faith in the Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them) must be propagated in the hearts of the people so that, through an increase in their awareness and by training capable powers in academic, political, and cultural arenas, they can prevent the usurping rulers from opposing them and in this way prepare the way for the rule of the true Islamic views.

The Accusation of "Exaggeration" (Ghuluww) Against the Shi‘a

QUESTION: Some writers classify certain sects of the ghulat as Shi‘a and may very well accuse the Shi‘a of exaggerating the status of the Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them). We know this is a false accusation that even in our times the Wahhabis resort to by publishing and disseminating pamphlets among those unfamiliar with Shi‘a beliefs. If possible, shed some light on this topic.

ANSWER: The issue of exaggerated beliefs has precedence among previous religious communities. About the Jews and Christians the Qur’an says,

وَقَالَتِ الْيَهُودُ عُزَيْرُ ابْنُ اللهِ وَقَالَتِ النَّصَارَى المَسِيحُ ابْنُ اللهِ).

"And the Jews said, ‘Uzair is the Son of God,’ and the Christians said, ‘The Messiah is the Son of God.’ "[20]

This disease is also found among the Muslims in various forms, as the hadith denotes:

لَتَسْلُكَنَّ سُبُلَ مَنْ كَانَ قَبْلَكُمْ حَذْوَ النَّعْلِ بِالنَّعْلِ وَالْقُذَّةِ بِالْقُذَّةِ حَتىَّ لَوْ أَنَّ أَحَدَهُمْ دَخَلَ حِجْرَ ضَبٍّ لَدَخَلْتُمُوهُ

Verily you will follow the paths of those who have gone before you in an exact manner, to the extent that if one of them were to enter a lizard’s hole, you would enter it (too).[21]

One form of the above is the situation that came about regarding Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him).

One group began believing in his divinity and praised him in their poetry as their deity. For example, they said

أَنْتَ خَالِقُ الخَلاَئِقِ مَـنْ زَعْزَعَ أَرْكَانَ خَيْبَرَ جَذْمًا

قَدْ رَضِينَا بِهِ إِمَامًا وَمَوْلىً وَسَجَـدْنَا لَهُ إِلهاً وَرَبًّـا

You created the universe,

the one who uprooted Khaybar’s firm foundations,

We are happy with him as a leader and master,

and prostrate to him as our God and Lord

A few said such words and poems out of hyperbole and exaggeration, not that they truly considered him their God. In addition, it has been narrated from Imam ‘Ali (peace be upon him) himself that he said,

هَلَكَ فيَِّ رَجُلاَنِ: محُِبٌّ غَالٍ وَمُبْغِضٌ قَالٍ

"Two groups of people will be destroyed on my account: the friend who exaggerates in his friendship and the enemy who dislikes me."[22]

In any case, throughout histor there have been and there are individuals who have had exaggerated beliefs, though not all of them to the extent that they raise someone to the status of Allah. In any case, these ideas are a form of deviation from Islam and the proper Shi‘a creeds. Such beliefs have more often been found among the Sufis, most of who are considered among the Ahl al-Sunnat; ideas such as transmigration (hulul), unity (ittihad), and so forth tend to be found in their writings.

Fortunately, thanks to the guidance of the Imams (peace be upon them), not only did the issue of sufism not spread as much among the Shi‘a as among the Ahl al-Sunnat, rather it was also repudiated and condemned by the Imams (peace be upon them), their followers, and the major scholars.

Thus, associating these issues to the Shi‘a is slander; the Shi‘a beliefs in regard to each of the issues of Divine unity, prophecy, Imamah, and resurrection are free of such exaggerated and devious matters, since the Imams (peace be upon them) as protectors of the Divine religion acted in such a way over two and half centuries as to close the path for idolatrous beliefs to penetrate, and the limits and boundaries of the fundamentals of Shi‘a thought and doctrine became known. Afterwards, the scholars clearly explained all of these beliefs by compiling and writing books of doctrine, such as the I`tiqadat of Majlisi.

A small group of Sufis was indeed found among the Shi‘a who put forth exaggerated beliefs in the name of wilayah and love of ‘Ali (peace be upon him), and in every case with the efforts of the mindful ‘Ulama appropriate answers were given them. As a result, they were not able to offer much resistance.
The Shi‘a consider none a partner to Allah in the His qualities of Majesty and Beauty. They believe the Prophet and Imams (peace be upon them) to be creatures and worshippers of Allah who are in need of Allah from all aspects and regard only Allah as free of need by His essence.

Of course, the qualities, distinctions, elevated status, and ranks of perfection that the Shi‘a mention for these personalities in accordance with reliable verses and traditions – for example they consider them the authority (hujjat), Imams, rulers (wali al-amr), and possessed of miracles – in no way have even the scent of exaggeration or polytheism. All of them represent the their perfection, apex of servitude, and degree of submission to the commandments of Allah.

In short, the principle of Imamah is one of the original principles of Islam that is understood from the verses of Qur’an and abundant traditions narrated from the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) himself; passage of time, conquests, and defeats played no role in its spread and development.
In addition, belief in this principle does not necessitate any form of exaggerated beliefs. All of the qualities that the Imam, in accordance with the traditions, possesses are not incompatible with the Imam being a servant of Allah and, like the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), being in need of Allah.

وَلاَ يمْلِكُ لِنَفْسِهِ نَفْعًا وَلاَ ضَرًّا

"And he controls neither his own benefit nor his loss."[23]

In fact, the Imam is not even a prophet, meaning that a code of law and rules is not revealed to him, though he is muhaddath (addressed), meaning that angels speak with him. However, his relation to the angels is not like the relation of the prophet to the angel of revelation, who communicates the Divine commands to the prophet, since the principles of all the commands have previously been explained, and messengership and prophecy have been sealed with the demise of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family).

In recognizing the Imam, it is important that one recognize the Imams who were introduced and appointed to the Imamah by Allah through the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and regard them, like the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), as having general rule and absolute authority (wilayat) over all religious and worldly affairs, and as possessing, with the exception of the prophecy, all of the Prophet’s qualities, like knowledge and infallibility. In short one must recognize the Imams (peace be upon them) as the true successors of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) in both religious and mundane matters.

From the point of view of materialists and those who don’t believe in the unseen world, belief in the unseen world, Divine religions, and the qualities which the faithful attribute to the prophets and friends of Allah are all mingled with exaggeration. Since the faithful believe in qualities, actions, and traits with respect to them that the materialist is unable to comprehend, he considers them to be the exaggerations of the believers with respect to the prophets and friends of Allah.

For example, from the materialists’ point of view, the miracles of Ibrahim, Musa, and `Isa (peace be upon them), in which the faithful believe, are all a form of exaggeration, though no exaggeration exists in these beliefs. All of these form a chain of realities that show the elevated status of their possessors. Exaggeration is to associate the Prophet or Imam with Allah, or regard Allah as unified with them, and so forth.

Notes:
[13] Surah Anfal (8), Verse 6
[14]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 1, p. 226
[15]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 36, p. 352
[16]Nahj al-Balaghah, edited by Subhi al-Salih, sermon 3, section 1
[17] Surah Ali-Imran (3), Verse 33
[18] Surah Insan (76), Verse 3
[19] Surah Naml (16), Verse 125
[20] Surah Tawbah (9), Verse 30
[21]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 21, p. 257
[22]Nahj al-Balaghah, edited by Subhi al-Salih, Short Sayings, no. 117
[23]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 76, p. 167, footnote 7

Historical factors and Shi’ism

By: Ayatullah al-Uzma Lutfullah Safi al-Gulpaygani

QUESTION: Have historical factors influenced the development of Shiaism, or is this sect a set of beliefs derived from the Qur’an and the clear traditions of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family)?

ANSWER: We need to explain several points in order to shed light on the topic and show that: (a) historical factors and events had no role in the development of Shiaism and the belief in the existence of an Imam who will save humanity (b) all beliefs of the Shi‘a are entirely Islamic and are derived from the same sources that the remainder of Muslim beliefs, from the Unity of Allah to the Day of Judgement, are derived from.

A. The Origin of Shiaism In the Prophet’s Time

In accordance with firm historical evidence and abundant traditions, the origin and formation of Shiaism was during the time of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). It began in the very first years of the prophetic mission and was completed by conveying Hhadith al-Thaqalain and officially and publicly proclaiming it during the event of Ghadir Khumm.

Of course, during his final illness, the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) wished to put that hadith in written form, and strong historical evidence and narrations indicate that ‘Umar’s obstruction and the disrespect shown to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) prevented him from having it written.

The principles of Shi‘a belief have been referred to in various places in the Holy Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) words of guidance. By way of example, the issue of the leadership of the Muslim community (‘ummah), brought up many times at suitable occasions, can be found among the sayings of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). The importance of the issue of Imamah (leadership of the ‘ummah) has been emphasized in his sayings to an extent that in one of his well-known and in fact mutawatir (consecutively-narrated) traditions he says: “One who dies without recognizing the Imam of his time dies the death of the Days of Ignorance (before the advent of Islam).”[4]

Death while ignorant of the Imam has been regarded as equal to dying during the Age of Ignorance – or rather they have been considered the same thing. According to consecutively narrated traditions, the conditions of the Imam, which tribe he is from, and the fact that the number of Imams (peace be upon them) is twelve all have been explained by the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family).
Similarly, the qualities of the Imam’s knowledge, his spiritual characteristics, and that he must be the most knowledgeable and perfect of all human beings have been explained in the Qur’an and traditions, as has the fact that the successorship of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and Imamate of the ummah after him is a Divine post that, just like prophethood itself, is appointed by Allah.

Shi‘a thought was established in the very first years of the advent of Islam on the basis of the original sources of Islam. However, at that time the opposing school of thought – which some time later came to be known as Sunni thought – did not exist and the Muslims were not divided into two branches. This is because those who, after the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) death, propagated the opposing view – which caused a division in the Muslim ranks – were unable to openly position themselves against the pure Islam, which later came to be known as Shi‘a Islam.

This division officially became apparent after the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) when a group gathered in Saqifah and chose a successor for the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family).

We must add that according to the guidance provided in the Holy Qur’an, in Islam, a reliable source and authority for explaining, organizing, and legislating beliefs has been foreseen and in numerous verses has been clearly stated, such as in Surah Nisa: “Although, were they to refer that to the Messenger (peace be upon him and his family) and those in authority among them, those among them who understand the roots of the issues would know it.”[5]

From this verse, it is understood that leadership is exclusive to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and the ulu ‘l-amr, who are the infallible Imams.

According to mutawatir traditions, the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) has clearly introduced this virtuous authority, which is none other than the progeny and Imams from the Ahl al-Bait of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). He has said, “They are with the Qur’an and the Qur’an is with them, and they and the Qur’an shall never separate from each other.”

In fact, in one hadith, he has added: “Among us, the Ahl al-Bait, in every generation there are found people firm in religion who protect the religion from the tampering of extremists and the mischief of the astray.”[6]

B. The Origin of the Issue of Khilafah

From the first days of the prophetic mission (bi`thah) the issue of leadership of the Islamic Nation after the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) was more or less in people’s minds. The story of the man who made his acceptance of Islam conditional upon becoming the leader after the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), which the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) did not accept, is well known.

The Shi‘a viewpoint about successorship of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) is a point that was announced by divine command before the people during the time of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) by the Prophet himself. At that time, none opposed it; rather, all the people – even those who later were involved in the events at Saqifah – celebrated it, and while pledging allegiance congratulated the Imam (peace be upon him). But from that very instant they began covertly planning and plotting and reached a point where they wished to assassinate the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family)!

After the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), the issue became a crisis and the opponents, with unusual severity and hard-heartedness, acted in the name of expediency and by threats and plotting created such an atmosphere that in the end they opposed the arrangements the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had announced, to the extent that they insulted and transgressed the personality of Fatimah az-Zahra (peace be upon him and his family) and distanced the course of Muslim history from the path the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had specified.

With the limitless cruelty they showed, they even trampled the dignity of the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) only offspring.

Of course, because of the policy ‘Ali (peace be upon him) pursued, two schools – Shi‘a and Sunni – did not come into open and violent confrontation. The issue only remained in the minds of those who thought about the legitimacy of the government; others, either indifferent to the matter or associated with the ruling party, did not discuss it. They may very well have considered it settled.

However, people like ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab were aware that in the face of the arrangements announced by the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) the legitimacy of their actions would always be under question. Thus, they prevented the return of the people to that authentic Islamic thinking by using political devices, and this is the reason that for about a century and a half they forbade traditions from the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). And since ‘Umar knew that if he did not find a way to sideline ‘Ali (peace be upon him) after him ‘Ali (peace be upon him) would definitely assume leadership, he plotted a new strategy.

He knew that if the testament – about which it is not known whether it is authentic or whether ‘Uthman added it to the document – was not attributed to Abu Bakr, Shi‘a thinking would again rise after ‘Umar’s death and their plotting would be fruitless.

He thus devised a six-member council and specified its mandate in such a way as to eliminate Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him).

In spite of this, the program specified by the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) was revived in memories and finally, in the end of ‘Uthman’s period, his oppression aroused general anger and disgust towards him and stirred the Muslims to rise against him. In this way the issue of successorship of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) was again raised and many companions returned to the Prophet’s original dictate and declared ‘Ali (peace be upon him) the rightful successor of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and regarded jihad under him (peace be upon him) the highest form of worship.

Thus, the Shi‘a belief about the succession to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) was never forgotten and people’s hearts were never without attachment to the Ahl al-Bait and awareness that they had been oppressed and their right usurped. People’s statements and the odes of poets such as al-Farazdaq show that the Shi‘a point of view existed and even an individual like Musa ibn Nasir – the ruler of Africa whose slave, Tariq, conquered Spain – in spite of being one of the officials of Banu Umayya’s government, was a proponent of Shi‘a thought. For this very reason, in spite of all of his services, in the end his property was confiscated and he was removed from office.

In fact, events came to such a pass that this point of view even penetrated the family of Mu‘awiya and Yazid, and Yazid’s son officially condemned his grandfather and father and acknowledged the right of ‘Ali and the Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them). The situation was the same in the time of Banu ‘Abbas as well.

From the government’s point of view the rightfulness and genuineness of Shi‘a thought should not have been put forth and followers of this school should not have had official responsibilities. But the situation was such that the oppressive and usurping rulers of Banu ‘Abbas such as Mansur, Harun, and Ma’mun, were aware of the truth of this Shi‘a thought, even though in practice they crushed it.

As a result of the spread of Shi‘a thought, Muntasir and some other rulers from Banu ‘Abbas became favorably disposed to this view in the issue of succession to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). It has been said that Nasir, in whose time the cellar of occultation in Samarra was inspected, declared himself Shi‘a, and it has been narrated that he regarded himself the deputy of the twelfth Imam (peace be upon him).

From the sum of the above facts it becomes clear that the true Islam, which is the same Shi‘a thought and Islam that existed in the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), has been there over the last fourteen centuries and history played no role in its existence. Rather, the existence of this point of view played a part in the coming about of major movements, risings, and events. Contrary to what some simple and misinformed people think, it must be said that Shi‘a governments in Egypt, Africa, and the Dayalima in Iran and Iraq, and finally the rise of the Safawiyya were all events brought about by Shi‘a thought; they played no role in bringing it about.

C. Sunnism and its Sectarian Meaning (in opposition to Shiaism) After the Prophet’s Time

The analysis that Shiaism, like Sunnism, had from the beginning a political form and gradually developed a religious basis is incorrect. Opposition to the successor announced by the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had a political aspect and that same political behavior caused division and conflict and brought into existence a new opinion in opposition to belief in Imamah. It resulted in the followers of pure Islam, in the form of a faction and with the name Shi‘a, developing a political orientation.

But the policy the Shi‘a as a political group pursued after this affair was based on the true teachings of Islam. Before it acquired a political tint, it was a principle pertaining to belief and religion, and it was a creed that included politics.

Thus, politicians would oppose this creed and strove to introduce a new sect and school of thought in opposition to it. In this way, at great expense and by bribing, threatening, and terrorizing, they in later periods gave a religious form to the policies that made the khilafah (succession) deviate from its specified course.
Of course, this movement wanted only to acquire the government, and if they hadn’t seen this aspect in Shiaism, they would not have opposed it and would not have introduced a sect by the name of Sunnism in opposition to it.

Thus, politics was the motive for opposition to Shiaism and the command announced by the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family). In the beginning, when the leaders of this party started their activities in those confused times, they hadn’t yet put forward a clear way of thinking.

Many factors, primary among which was the threat of the destruction of Islam through internal armed strife, prevented the religio-political leaders from reaching for their swords, and this aided the leaders of the anti-Shi‘a school in taking hold of affairs.

Since they had no firm thinking for them to follow in practice and in no case respected the principle of bay`ah (allegiance) and election by the people, the basis of their government was coercion and tyranny.

After the event of Saqifah which was the reason for Abu Bakr’s assumption of power, ‘Umar, with the peculiar coarseness and roughness that he possessed, drew his sword and roamed the streets, forcing the people to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr. This coercion came to such a pass that they even demanded allegiance of ‘Ali (peace be upon him) and forcibly took him to the masjid to obtain his allegiance, after unspeakable insolence to Lady Fatima (peace be upon her) and desecrating the sanctity of her house.

The government of ‘Umar himself, which he claimed was formed in accordance to Abu Bakr’s testament, was such that they said that when Abu Bakr was on his deathbed and was in an out of consciousness, he endeavored to write a testament. In that situation, without him specifying the ruler after him, ‘Uthman wrote ‘Umar’s name in the testament. When Abu Bakr returned to consciousness, he affirmed it!

Whatever it was, was there even a testament in place? In any case, ‘Umar came to power and no one so much as said to Abu Bakr, “Pain has overcome him”[7]; no regard is given to what this ailing man, who has lost his reason, says. Yet with this very excuse they prevented the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) from writing a testament!

Be that as it may, with Abu Bakr’s appointment ‘Umar took control of power and himself appointed a six-member council for after his death.

Thus, we come to know that there was no harmonious idea based on the people’s right to election involved in the affair. However, when ‘Uthman was killed, the Muslims rushed to ‘Ali’s (peace be upon him) door – and though, according to the Shi‘a, he alone was the rightful ruler – all pledged allegiance to him. Afterwards, though the opponents of the Shi‘a strove to find a religious basis for government and put forward the idea of general allegiance or that of the upper class and other contradictory ideas – even force and overpowering – as such a basis, in reality the standard was nothing but coercion. They acted in such a way that the people had no choice but pledging allegiance to the successor appointed by the ruler.

Thus, the Shi‘a’s opponents had no overall program of government, and even in current times one of their biggest researchers, who has realized this fact, says: “In fact, Islam has not foreseen a particular method in the politics of selecting a ruler; any form the people themselves specify becomes the law and is implemented.”

D. Cause of the Division of Muslims into two factions, Sunni and Shi‘a

The fact is that the real reason for this split was the love of status and power.

A few saw that with the situation that had taken shape, they would have no part in the future leadership; thus from the very time of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) they began grouping and conspiring. One of their major plans was to introduce and then propagate a new school of thought in opposition to the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) stance.

They raised the slogan "

حَسْبُنَا كِتَابُ اللهِ

"(The Book of Allah suffices us) to reduce the value of the existing traditions about Imamah, and in the end they introduced these traditions as worthless. For this very reason when the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) wished to write his testament, since they knew this written testament would reinforce his oral testaments, they put up firm resistance. In words also related by Ahl al-Sunnah, ‘Umar said, “Illness has overcome him; the book of Allah suffices us.”[8]

According to the narration of others, he said, “The man (The Prophet) speaks nonsense!”[9] (God forbid

In either case, he stood in the way and said, “The book of Allah suffices us,” meaning that we have no need of the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) testament and his explicit statements.

The title Shi‘a was given to the followers of ‘Ali (peace be upon him) in that period by the Prophet himself (peace be upon him and his family). The Prophet called his sincere followers the Shi‘a. But this did not result in the division of the Muslims into two groups. Though people like Salman, Abu Dharr, and Miqdad had a firm belief in ‘Ali (peace be upon him) from that time, the opponents were not yet an independent group, and these admonitions of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) about Imamah meant that all should follow Imam ’Ali (peace be upon him).

But after the death of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), opposition to this command came out in the open and the love of power and ruling over others – which some had set their sights on – caused some, in spite of the Prophet’s explicit statements about ‘Ali’s successorship, to oppose that and cause division in the ranks of the Muslims.

If we wish to hide the facts and present a different explanation, even if untrue, we have to say that this division started when because of their weak faith a group of Muslims did not give the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) words and counsel the same status as revelation and assumed the book of Allah is sufficient for people’s guidance and there is no need for the Prophet’s words. It is as if they regarded themselves as the Prophet’s equals in grasping the Qur’an’s principles and purposes.

Thus, they did not follow the path he (peace be upon him and his family) had specified and favored their personal opinion and the benefit and harm they themselves perceived for themselves over the Prophet’s commands. Or else they considered some of the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) commands as being related to government and administration of society, but considered them modifiable as conditions required.

They presumed the successorship was just such an issue and believed that even if the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had appointed his own successor, since his words and actions – in their view – did not have the status of revelation, opposition to them is permissible. Thus after the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) death these people ignored the Prophet’s command and set it aside and with these false excuses removed the successorship from its specified course.

Even though they had no proper system of thought for the administration of society in those conditions on which they could base the khilafah, still they insisted that the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) appointee shouldn’t take charge of the administration of society, or it isn’t expedient. In spite of the fact that in some issues they insisted on implementing the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) command, here their conduct was the opposite, just as, when the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) appointed ‘Usamah as the leader of the army, they did not leave him in his post. In any case, they thought it was their right to adjust the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) commands, carry out any changes or alterations they thought necessary and make use of pretexts that are worse than the crime itself.

In opposition to this group it was Imam ‘Ali (peace be upon him) and a small group of his followers who believed in the truth of the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) teachings and commands and would say that the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) words have the ruling of revelation, or rather that they are in fact revelation, as the Qur’an says in this regard: “He speaks not of his own desire; it is naught but revelation that is revealed.”[10]

And the verse: “What the Messenger has brought you, take, and what he forbids you from, avoid.”[11]

refers to the commands of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), which must be implemented without alteration, and we are in no way free of need of the Prophet’s counsels and teachings. The religion of Islam is perfect and comprehensive from all aspects and no defect can be imagined in it.

This group was called Ahl al-Nass (followers of the religious texts). They would say that the path of re-interpreting and contextualizing these traditions is closed and the succession of Imam ‘Ali (peace be upon him) was conveyed at Allah’s command to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) by revelation.

“O’ Messenger! Convey that which has been revealed to thee by thy Lord…”[12]

In any case, the Muslims were in this way split into two camps. In truth, using the term “Ahl al-Sunnat” (followers of the sunnat) to refer to those who rejected, altered, and falsely interpreted the sunnat is incorrect. Instead, those deserving this title are the ones who remained attached to the Qur’an and Prophetic sunnat (conduct).

Incidentally, intent of those who by clinging to “The book of Allah suffices us” split the Muslims into two camps is that the basic matter of the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) messengership is the book of Allah and there is no need of the Prophetic sunnat. Even though this group, with there way of thinking, opposed the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) explicit command regarding Imam ‘Ali (peace be upon him), after they had sidelined ‘Ali (peace be upon him) they returned to the Prophet’s sunnat in many instances, since they saw that their fallacious way of thinking could not go forward. By raising the slogan “The book of Allah suffices us” it is not possible to obtain needed rulings and solve society’s difficulties.

Of course, the opponents of the Shi‘a thought benefited substantially from such slogans and deceived a large group, most of whom were commoners and unaware, and they prevented the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) from writing his testament. With this excuse they marginalized those who said the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) command regarding the successorship of ‘Ali (peace be upon him) must be respected and made it their principle that only the Qur’an is central. Their aim was that the traditions of Ghadir, yawn al-dar, and other ahadith not be mentioned. Later, when they saw that without the traditions it is not possible to manage the affairs they became involved in ijtihad (juristic reasoning) in opposition to ahadith (the exercise of personal opinion) and altered the commandments of Allah and turned to false interpretations, explanations, and analogy, and they subjected many traditions to doubt.

The origin of the Shi‘a school, like the origin of Islam itself, is not related to historical events. Of course, events had and have an effect on people’s political positions and the occurrence of certain happenings, but is not the primary factor on all matters. For example, one of the causes and wisdoms in the concealment of the twelfth Imam (peace be upon him) – as indicated by some traditions – was that he (peace be upon him) not be caught up in allegiance to oppressive rulers. However, his existence (peace be upon him) and concealment, according to consecutively narrated (mutawatir) traditions, was a destined affair determined in advance and which occurred according to that plan. It is not that the issue of Imamah came about gradually through time and the course of history has made it necessary.

Through historical research it becomes clear that it is the Sunni school of thought about the succession that came about as a result of a chain of historical causes; otherwise Shi‘a thought about the principle of Imamah, as explained several times, was founded at the beginning of the Prophetic mission (bi`thah) as a result of Allah’s command and the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) clear instructions.

Thus, it was Shi‘a thought that influenced history, not history that created it.

Opponents of the Shi‘a school of thought say that there was no guidance from the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) in this regard. Thus, after the Prophet’s (peace be upon him and his family) demise, the concern and confusion that had taken hold of the Muslims caused them to specify someone as khalifah. This was accomplished in Saqifah after much discussion and searching that resulted in Abu Bakr being chosen as the Prophet’s successor. Subsequently, in order to avoid unpleasant events and chaos in society, Abu Bakr appointed his successor and ‘Umar in turn specified a six-member council for after his death to make a decision in this regard.

All of these occurrences had particular reasons at the head of which was political goals. Though the supporters of this point of view try to portray this important historical happening as natural, facts are at odds with its being natural. On the other hand, in numerous ways they support the Shi‘a point of view about Imamah.

E. The Religious Basis for Support of the Leadership of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them)

Support for the leadership of Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them) from the beginning was based on Islamic teachings. Those who opposed Saqifah and the succession of Abu Bakr had no motive except their religious duty and guarding the teachings and guidance of the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family).

Referring to books like The Origin of the Shi‘a and their Principles, History of the Shi‘a, The Shi‘a in History, and tens of other Shi‘a and Sunni books will at least demonstrate that inclination to Shiaism from the beginning has had only a religious motive.

The sermons of Amir al-Mu’minin (peace be upon him) in Nahj al-Balagha affirm that the true position of the Ahl al-Bait (peace be upon them) has truly been material, spiritual, and religious leadership, of which governing is a branch.

Notes:
[4]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 8, p. 368, in the course of Allamah Majlisi’s commentary
[5] Surah an-Nisa’ (4), Verse 83
[6] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 2, p. 92, footnote 21
[7] Commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah, Ibn Abi ‘l-Hadid, vol. 2, p. 55
[8] Commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah, Ibn Abi ‘l-Hadid, vol. 2, p. 55
[9]Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 30 p. 535
[10] Surah Najm (53), Verses 3-4
[11] Surah Hashr (59), Verse 7
[12] Surah Ma’idah (5), Verse 67

The Sh’ites' Share in Regional Historiography

By: Rasul Ja'fariyan

Regional Histories from the 4th to 8th Centuries AH

The Sh’ites have also had a share in regional historiography. Among the earliest work in this field, which predates all other books is Nihl al-‘Arab by Muhammad bin Bahr Rahnī.[36] Yāqut al-Hamawī, commenting on this book and its author, writes:

He has written many works including the one titled Kitāb Nihl al-‘Arab, in which he has mentioned the dispersion of Arabs in the lands of Islam, noting whether they were Shi‘ite, Kharijite or Sunni, but he had good words for the Shi‘ites as well as for others. I know about the part of the book which deals with the people of the east, especially of Kirmān, Sīstān, Khurāsān and Tabaristān.

Nothing remains of this book except what Yāqut al-Hamawī has written in Mu‘jam al-Buldān.

The book al-Buldān wa al Masāhah or al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al-Buldān as it is also known, was written by Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī. The author of Tārīkh al-Qum used this work in the fourth century as a source for his history of Qum (Mudarrisī has pointed out the quotations from al-Tibyān in Tārīkh al-Qum; refer to Bibliography of Works related to Qum, p. 18. Rāfi‘ī has also quoted some passages from it in al-Tadwīn, pp. 44-48). In the printed edition of Tārīkh al-Qum, al-Barqī has been quoted extensively, and in one instance, it says: “In the book al-Bunyān al-Barqī thus writes...”.[37] It is possible that al-Bunyān is the misspelling of al-Buldān. Another possibility is that the author of the bibliographical work Kashf al-Zunun has misspelled the book whose actual title is Kitāb al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al- Buldān.[38] Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī, the father of Ahmad al-Barqī has also been named as the author of al-Buldān wa al Masāhah.[39] Another book of the same name al-Buldān wa al-Masāhah was written in the third century by Abī Ja‘far Muhammad bin ‘Abdullāh bin Ja‘far bin Husayn bin Jami‘ al-Himyarī. When he failed in his efforts to get a copy of Ahmad al-Barqī’s book in Baghdad, Rayy and Qum, he decided to write a new book in this connection under the same title.[40]

Another important book on the history of Qum is the one written in 378 AH by Hasan bin Muhammad bin Hasan al-Qummī. It is one of the most interesting and academic books of the early period of Islamic civilization. In contrast to the regional historiography of this period which mainly concerns the life of the notables of the cities, this particular work is a scholarly account of the various issues, including civic affairs, related to the city’s history. In the introduction, the compiler has divided the book into twenty chapters but unfortunately the Persian translation of only the fifth chapter is extant. There is no information either on the Arabic version or the rest of the translation. The Persian translation was completed in 805 AH by Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Hasan bin ‘Abd al-Malik Qummī. Apart from the information given on the city of Qum, the book mentions valuable details concerning the collecting of taxes in those days. In addition the author has elaborated in detail on the Ash‘arī tribe of the city beginning with its place of origin in Yemen and the meeting with Prophet Muhammad (S) in Medina on the advent of Islam till its migration to Iraq and then to Qum. He has also focused on the role of Ash‘arite tribesmen in the early Islamic conquests especially the conquest of parts of Iran.

Another valuable but lost book is the Tārīkh Rayy by Muntajab al-Dīn Ibn Babawayh the author of al-Fihrist who lived in the sixth century. Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalānī in his Lisān al-Mīzān has quoted accounts of several Shi‘ite and Sunni notables from this book, of which 47 have been mentioned by the late Urmawī in his introduction to the edition of al-Fihrist published by the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Najafī Library, Qum (pp. 11-16). Tārīkh Rayy was also the title of a historical book written by Abu Sa‘īd Mansur bin Husayn Abī the author of the valuable book Nathr al-Dur.[41] Another important book is the Tārīkh Tabaristan of Ibn Isfandiyār who lived in the 6th century AH. It is considered the most important work on the history of Tabaristān by a Shi‘ite historian. Mention should also be made of the Tārīkh Ruyān of Mawlānā Awliyā’ Allah Amulī. It is a precious work on regional history in which the author has mentioned part of the historical viewpoints of the Shi‘ites in the days of the Imams (‘a).

Notes:

[36] Mu‘jam al-Udabā, vol. 18, p. 31 al-Wāfī bi al-Wafayāt, vol. 2, p. 244; al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 24, p. 82.

[37] Tārīkh Qum, p. 56.

[38] Refer to al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 3, pp. 145 under the letter Shīn 497.
[39] Ibid.

[40] Rijāl al-Najāshī, p. 355.

[41] Al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 3, p. 254.

Arabic and Persian Works of ‘Twelver Sunnis’ on the Twelve Imams (‘a) from the 6th to the 10th Centuries

From among the Sunnis, several scholars for various reasons, have written books on the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a). This is apart from those Sunni scholars who wrote books on the merits of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) in general and whose works have been introduced by Sayyid ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Tabātabā’ī in his series of articles entitled Ahl al-Bayt fi al-Maktabah al-‘Arabiyyah in the quarterly magazine Turāthanā. The term ‘Twelver Imamī Sunnis’ can be safely used to describe this group of authors. The first book in this regard is the Tadhkirah al-Khawāss of Yusuf bin Farghalī bin ‘Abdullāh al-Baghdadī Sibt Abī al-Faraj ‘Abd al-Rahmān bin al-Jawzī (581-654). The author has dwelt on the virtues of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and given an account of the lives and merits of all the Twelve Imams (‘a). Among the books which no longer exist Kitāb al-Al of Ibn Khālawayh (d. 370) must have been a similar work as could be gleaned from its passages quoted by Irbilī in his Kashf al-Ghummah.

One of the outstanding figures of this trend among the Sunnis was Kamāl al-Dīn Muhammad bin Talhah Shāfi‘ī (d. 652) the author of the renowned book Matālib al-Su’ul fī Manāqib Al-i al-Rasul. Irbilī has praised him for his excellent account of the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a). ‘Abd al-‘Azīz bin Muhammad known as Ibn Akhzar Gunābādī (d. 611) in his book Ma‘ālim al-‘Itrah al-Nabawiyyah wa Ma‘ārif Ahl al-Bayt al-Fātimiyyah al-‘Alawiyyah has written on the lives of only eleven of the Twelve Imams (‘a) and for this reason he has been criticised by ‘Alī bin ‘Isā Irbilī.[42]

Two other important examples of Sunni books are al-Fusul al-Muhimmah fī Ma‘rifah Ahwāl al-A’immah by Ibn Sabbāgh Mālikī (d. 855) and al-Shadharāt al-Dhahabiyyah fī Tarājim al-A’immah al-Ithnā ‘Ashariyyah ‘ind al-Imāmiyyah by Shams al-Dīn Muhammad bin Tulun (d. 953). Hamdullāh Mustawfī the author of Nuzhat al-Qulub in his historical account titled Tārīkh-i Guzīdah, begins with the history of the first three caliphs and then elaborates on the life and virtues of Amīr al-Mu’minīn Imam ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib (‘a). In continuation, on page 198 he writes about the life of Imam Hasan (‘a) using the phrase Amīr al- Mu’minīn wa Hafīd Rasul Rabb al-‘Alamīn Imam al-Mujtabā, Hasan bin ‘Alī al-Murtazā (‘a) which means “Commander of the Faithful, Grandson of the Messenger of the Lord of the Worlds, the Chosen Imam, Hasan the son of ‘Alī the Pleased.” The thirtieth chapter of the thirtieth section deals with the lives of the other Imams. Mustawfī writes: “Concerning the rest of Imams, the pleasure of Allah be upon them all, they were the proof of Allah for mankind. The period of their imamate, starting from 4th of Safar 49 AH till Ramazān 264, was 215 years and 7 months. The Imams did not rule as caliphs, but since they were deserving (to be caliphs), the benediction of their status travels like perfume on the road of epitome to bring proof.” This discussion continues till the account of the life of the Imam of the Age (‘a).[43]

Another important work is Fasl al-Khitāb by Khwājah Muhammad Pārsā who lived in the ninth century AH. Despite his insistence on being a Sunni and even his strong stances against the Rafidites, he has written about the lives of the Imams (‘a). This part of the book has been published in volume 4 of the series of books titled Islamic Heritage of Iran. The author of Rawzāt al-Jinān wa Jannāt al Jinān, Darwīsh Husayn Karbalā’ī (10th century AH) has also dedicated a lengthy section in his book on the lives of the Imams (‘a). This book has been published.

Among the outstanding works of this nature is the valuable book Wasīlah al-Khādim ilā al-Makhdum dar Sharh Salawāt Chāhardah Ma‘sum by Fazlullāh bin Ruzbahān Khunjī (d. 927) who is famous for his antagonism towards the Shi‘ites and especially the Safawid dynasty. This is an exclusive book on the lives of the Fourteen Infallibles.[44] Kunh al-Akhbār is the title of a book on the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a) and was compiled in the 10th century AH in the Ottoman realm.[45] Even Ibn Hajar Haythamī who wrote al-Sawā‘iq al-Muhriqah in refutation of what he called the beliefs of the Rafidites, has devoted the whole book to the lives and merits of the Twelve Imams (‘a). One of the most important figures in this regard is Mullā Husayn Kāshifī who in his book Rawzah al-Shuhadā’ has written a brief account of the lives of the Prophets and the Twelve Imams (‘a) as well as issues concerning mourning for them. The most detailed section of this book is dedicated to Imam Husayn (‘a). Another noteworthy book by this particular group of Sunnis is Kamāl al-Dīn Khwārazmī’s al-Maqsad al-Aqsā, which in addition to the lives of the caliphs gives an account of the Twelve Imams (‘a).

Notes:

[42] Kashf al-Ghummah, vol. 2, p. 306. It seems that nothing has remained from the book Ma‘ālim, although parts of it have been mentioned by Irbilī; refer to Kashf al-Ghummah, p. 121.

[43] Tārīkh-e Guzīdah, p. 207.

[44] This book was published with the efforts of the writer of this article (Rasul Ja‘fariyān) by the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Library, Qum. The new edition of this book, after due research on the basis of a newly discovered manuscript, has been published by Ansāriyān Publishers, Qum.
[45] Refer to the Persian quarterly, Nashr-e Dānesh, 14th year of publication (1376 SH, month of Esfand (Feb.-March, 1998), p. 58.

Persian Works by Imamis from the 7th till 10th Centuries

Few Persian works written by the Imamī Shi‘ites during the 7th-10th centuries AH have survived today. However, whatever extant literature of this type is available it is worth full consideration. The invaluable work entitled Naqz by ‘Abd al-Jalīl Qazvīnī Rāzī is a kalāmī-historical book written in defence of Shi‘ites as a refutation of a work written against the Shi‘ites. This important work includes exclusive information from the sixth century AH especially on the Shi‘ites, their cultural situation and the political circumstances of the time. In this book the author also mentions that he has written a book on hadīth ifk[46] in defence of ‘Ayishah. He mentions this work in order to say that the Shi‘ites do not insult the wives of Prophet Muhammad (S) as alleged.

Three works have been compiled by a very active Shi‘ite writer of the late 7th century AH which are all of kalāmī-historical nature. ‘Imād al-Dīn Tabarī the author of Kāmil Bahā’ī, Manāqib al-Tāhirīn and Tuhfat al-Abrār takes a kalāmī-historical look at important Shī‘ah issues and occasionally gives information on the times they were written. The voluminous book Ahsan al-Kibār fī Ma‘rifat al-A’immah al-Abrār by Sayyid Muhammad bin Abī Zayd bin ‘Arabshāh Warāmīnī on the lives of the Imams was written in the year 740 AH. Several copies of this work are found including the manuscript in the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Library. The summary of this book by ‘Alī bin Hasan Zawāreh’ī titled Lawāmi‘ al-Anwār is also available.

The book Rāmesh Afzā-ye Al-i Muhammad by Muhammad bin Husayn Muhtasib is a ten-volume work on the history of the Prophets and Imams (‘a). Muntajab al-Dīn Ibn Bābawayh had seen the book and studied part of it under the author.[47] Two quotations from it are also mentioned in the Manāqib of Ibn Shahr Ashub, one of which concerns the life of Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (‘a) and the other on the knowledge of Imam Sādiq (‘a).[48] Muntajab al-Dīn has mentioned this book in al-Fihrist but no trace has been found of it after the 8th century. Mabāhij al-Muhaj fī Manāhij al-Hujaj is the work of Qutb al-Dīn Kayzarī the outstanding Shi‘ite writer who most probably lived in the sixth century AH. This book which is in Arabic was translated into Persian by Hasan bin Husayn Shī‘ī Sabziwārī in the eighth century under the tllte Bahjat al-Mabāhij. He presented this translation to Khwājah Nizām al-Dīn Yahyā bin Shams al-Dīn who ruled in Khurāsān as one of the commanders of the Sarbedārān movement from 753-759 AH. Bahjat al-Mabāhij was rendered into rhyme during the 10th century AH by the poet Hayratī Tunī of Kāshān. Hasan Shī‘ī Sabziwārī is also the author of Rāhat al-Arwāh wa Munis al-Ashbāh, a book which devotes itself to the life of Prophet Muhammad (S) and his Ahl al-Bayt (‘a). Copies of this work are available.[50]

There is a work titled Tārīkh-i Muhammadī, or Tārīkh-i Rashīdī as it is also known. This book has also been mentioned by two other names: Tārīkh-i Dawāzdah Imām or Fihrist-i A’immah. The description of this book in the library catalogue says: “On the dates of the birth of the Prophet and the Imams as well as their places of birth, their agnomen, titles, geneology and resting place.” The manuscript of this work is in the Tabrīz National Library, number 3626 and dated 20th of Dhī al-Qa‘dah 819 AH.[51] The author of this book is Mullā Hasan Kāshī, who was close to Sultān Muhammad Khodā-Bandah and played an important role in the Tashayyu‘ of that era. He wrote this book in Hillah and Baghdad in the year 708 AH when he was sixty years old.[52] A book under the title Tārīkh-i ‘Itrat was also compiled in the year 803 in Aleppo, Syria, and has recently been published by the late Dāneshpazhuh.[53]

Among the most detailed works on the early history of Islam by Persian-speaking Shi‘ites is Nuzhat al-Kirām wa Bustān al –‘Awām, written by Jamāl al-Dīn Murtazā Muhammad bin Husayn bin Hasan al-Rāzī who lived in the late sixth and early seventh century AH. This two-volume work has recently been researched and published by Muhammad Shīrwānī. The book contains narrations on the characteristics and biography of Prophet Muhammad (S) until the twenty-first chapter. After that until the 30th chapter of the first volume, the author writes about Abī Bakr and other topics. The second volume of the book till the sixtieth chapter focuses on the miracles of the 14 Infallibles till Imam Mahdī (may Allah hasten his reappearance). This work along with the book Ahsan al-Kibār should be considered the most comprehensive Shi‘ite work in Persian written in the medieval period of Iranian history since the advent of Islam. It is worth noting that this book despite being in Persian, drew the attention of Ibn Tāwus who asked it to be translated into Arabic in view of its importance. In one case he has quoted some topics of this book in his own work Faraj al-Mahmum.[54] A maqtal written in Persian verse by Abu al-Mafākhir al-Rāzī in the 6th century, was used as a source for Rawzāh al-Shuhadā’ by Mullā Husayn Kāshifī.
Notes:
[46] Kitāb al-Naqz, pp. 115, 295.
[47] Muntajab al-Dīn, al-Fihrist, p. 108.
[48] Refer to Ta‘līqat al-Fihrist, Muntajab al-Dīn, published by Urmawī, pp. 435, the letter Shīn, p. 394.
[50] Ibid, p. 785.
[51] Munzawī, ‘Alī Naqī, List of Persian Manuscripts, p. 2704
[52] Storey, Persian Literature, p. 899.
[53] Refer to the Introduction in Bustān al-Kirām, p. 15, where the late Dāneshpazhuh has given a account of Arabic and Persian on the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) written by both the Sunnis and the Shi‘ites. Unfortunately this information is not so complete.
[54] Kohlberg, Etan, A Medieval 

The Sh’ites' Share in Regional Historiography

By: Rasul Ja'fariyan

Regional Histories from the 4th to 8th Centuries AH

The Sh’ites have also had a share in regional historiography. Among the earliest work in this field, which predates all other books is Nihl al-‘Arab by Muhammad bin Bahr Rahnī.[36] Yāqut al-Hamawī, commenting on this book and its author, writes:

He has written many works including the one titled Kitāb Nihl al-‘Arab, in which he has mentioned the dispersion of Arabs in the lands of Islam, noting whether they were Shi‘ite, Kharijite or Sunni, but he had good words for the Shi‘ites as well as for others. I know about the part of the book which deals with the people of the east, especially of Kirmān, Sīstān, Khurāsān and Tabaristān.

Nothing remains of this book except what Yāqut al-Hamawī has written in Mu‘jam al-Buldān.

The book al-Buldān wa al Masāhah or al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al-Buldān as it is also known, was written by Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī. The author of Tārīkh al-Qum used this work in the fourth century as a source for his history of Qum (Mudarrisī has pointed out the quotations from al-Tibyān in Tārīkh al-Qum; refer to Bibliography of Works related to Qum, p. 18. Rāfi‘ī has also quoted some passages from it in al-Tadwīn, pp. 44-48). In the printed edition of Tārīkh al-Qum, al-Barqī has been quoted extensively, and in one instance, it says: “In the book al-Bunyān al-Barqī thus writes...”.[37] It is possible that al-Bunyān is the misspelling of al-Buldān. Another possibility is that the author of the bibliographical work Kashf al-Zunun has misspelled the book whose actual title is Kitāb al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al- Buldān.[38] Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī, the father of Ahmad al-Barqī has also been named as the author of al-Buldān wa al Masāhah.[39] Another book of the same name al-Buldān wa al-Masāhah was written in the third century by Abī Ja‘far Muhammad bin ‘Abdullāh bin Ja‘far bin Husayn bin Jami‘ al-Himyarī. When he failed in his efforts to get a copy of Ahmad al-Barqī’s book in Baghdad, Rayy and Qum, he decided to write a new book in this connection under the same title.[40]

Another important book on the history of Qum is the one written in 378 AH by Hasan bin Muhammad bin Hasan al-Qummī. It is one of the most interesting and academic books of the early period of Islamic civilization. In contrast to the regional historiography of this period which mainly concerns the life of the notables of the cities, this particular work is a scholarly account of the various issues, including civic affairs, related to the city’s history. In the introduction, the compiler has divided the book into twenty chapters but unfortunately the Persian translation of only the fifth chapter is extant. There is no information either on the Arabic version or the rest of the translation. The Persian translation was completed in 805 AH by Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Hasan bin ‘Abd al-Malik Qummī. Apart from the information given on the city of Qum, the book mentions valuable details concerning the collecting of taxes in those days. In addition the author has elaborated in detail on the Ash‘arī tribe of the city beginning with its place of origin in Yemen and the meeting with Prophet Muhammad (S) in Medina on the advent of Islam till its migration to Iraq and then to Qum. He has also focused on the role of Ash‘arite tribesmen in the early Islamic conquests especially the conquest of parts of Iran.

Another valuable but lost book is the Tārīkh Rayy by Muntajab al-Dīn Ibn Babawayh the author of al-Fihrist who lived in the sixth century. Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalānī in his Lisān al-Mīzān has quoted accounts of several Shi‘ite and Sunni notables from this book, of which 47 have been mentioned by the late Urmawī in his introduction to the edition of al-Fihrist published by the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Najafī Library, Qum (pp. 11-16). Tārīkh Rayy was also the title of a historical book written by Abu Sa‘īd Mansur bin Husayn Abī the author of the valuable book Nathr al-Dur.[41] Another important book is the Tārīkh Tabaristan of Ibn Isfandiyār who lived in the 6th century AH. It is considered the most important work on the history of Tabaristān by a Shi‘ite historian. Mention should also be made of the Tārīkh Ruyān of Mawlānā Awliyā’ Allah Amulī. It is a precious work on regional history in which the author has mentioned part of the historical viewpoints of the Shi‘ites in the days of the Imams (‘a).

Notes:

[36] Mu‘jam al-Udabā, vol. 18, p. 31 al-Wāfī bi al-Wafayāt, vol. 2, p. 244; al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 24, p. 82.

[37] Tārīkh Qum, p. 56.

[38] Refer to al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 3, pp. 145 under the letter Shīn 497.
[39] Ibid.

[40] Rijāl al-Najāshī, p. 355.

[41] Al-Dharī‘ah, vol. 3, p. 254.

Arabic and Persian Works of ‘Twelver Sunnis’ on the Twelve Imams (‘a) from the 6th to the 10th Centuries

From among the Sunnis, several scholars for various reasons, have written books on the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a). This is apart from those Sunni scholars who wrote books on the merits of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) in general and whose works have been introduced by Sayyid ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Tabātabā’ī in his series of articles entitled Ahl al-Bayt fi al-Maktabah al-‘Arabiyyah in the quarterly magazine Turāthanā. The term ‘Twelver Imamī Sunnis’ can be safely used to describe this group of authors. The first book in this regard is the Tadhkirah al-Khawāss of Yusuf bin Farghalī bin ‘Abdullāh al-Baghdadī Sibt Abī al-Faraj ‘Abd al-Rahmān bin al-Jawzī (581-654). The author has dwelt on the virtues of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and given an account of the lives and merits of all the Twelve Imams (‘a). Among the books which no longer exist Kitāb al-Al of Ibn Khālawayh (d. 370) must have been a similar work as could be gleaned from its passages quoted by Irbilī in his Kashf al-Ghummah.

One of the outstanding figures of this trend among the Sunnis was Kamāl al-Dīn Muhammad bin Talhah Shāfi‘ī (d. 652) the author of the renowned book Matālib al-Su’ul fī Manāqib Al-i al-Rasul. Irbilī has praised him for his excellent account of the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a). ‘Abd al-‘Azīz bin Muhammad known as Ibn Akhzar Gunābādī (d. 611) in his book Ma‘ālim al-‘Itrah al-Nabawiyyah wa Ma‘ārif Ahl al-Bayt al-Fātimiyyah al-‘Alawiyyah has written on the lives of only eleven of the Twelve Imams (‘a) and for this reason he has been criticised by ‘Alī bin ‘Isā Irbilī.[42]

Two other important examples of Sunni books are al-Fusul al-Muhimmah fī Ma‘rifah Ahwāl al-A’immah by Ibn Sabbāgh Mālikī (d. 855) and al-Shadharāt al-Dhahabiyyah fī Tarājim al-A’immah al-Ithnā ‘Ashariyyah ‘ind al-Imāmiyyah by Shams al-Dīn Muhammad bin Tulun (d. 953). Hamdullāh Mustawfī the author of Nuzhat al-Qulub in his historical account titled Tārīkh-i Guzīdah, begins with the history of the first three caliphs and then elaborates on the life and virtues of Amīr al-Mu’minīn Imam ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib (‘a). In continuation, on page 198 he writes about the life of Imam Hasan (‘a) using the phrase Amīr al- Mu’minīn wa Hafīd Rasul Rabb al-‘Alamīn Imam al-Mujtabā, Hasan bin ‘Alī al-Murtazā (‘a) which means “Commander of the Faithful, Grandson of the Messenger of the Lord of the Worlds, the Chosen Imam, Hasan the son of ‘Alī the Pleased.” The thirtieth chapter of the thirtieth section deals with the lives of the other Imams. Mustawfī writes: “Concerning the rest of Imams, the pleasure of Allah be upon them all, they were the proof of Allah for mankind. The period of their imamate, starting from 4th of Safar 49 AH till Ramazān 264, was 215 years and 7 months. The Imams did not rule as caliphs, but since they were deserving (to be caliphs), the benediction of their status travels like perfume on the road of epitome to bring proof.” This discussion continues till the account of the life of the Imam of the Age (‘a).[43]

Another important work is Fasl al-Khitāb by Khwājah Muhammad Pārsā who lived in the ninth century AH. Despite his insistence on being a Sunni and even his strong stances against the Rafidites, he has written about the lives of the Imams (‘a). This part of the book has been published in volume 4 of the series of books titled Islamic Heritage of Iran. The author of Rawzāt al-Jinān wa Jannāt al Jinān, Darwīsh Husayn Karbalā’ī (10th century AH) has also dedicated a lengthy section in his book on the lives of the Imams (‘a). This book has been published.

Among the outstanding works of this nature is the valuable book Wasīlah al-Khādim ilā al-Makhdum dar Sharh Salawāt Chāhardah Ma‘sum by Fazlullāh bin Ruzbahān Khunjī (d. 927) who is famous for his antagonism towards the Shi‘ites and especially the Safawid dynasty. This is an exclusive book on the lives of the Fourteen Infallibles.[44] Kunh al-Akhbār is the title of a book on the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a) and was compiled in the 10th century AH in the Ottoman realm.[45] Even Ibn Hajar Haythamī who wrote al-Sawā‘iq al-Muhriqah in refutation of what he called the beliefs of the Rafidites, has devoted the whole book to the lives and merits of the Twelve Imams (‘a). One of the most important figures in this regard is Mullā Husayn Kāshifī who in his book Rawzah al-Shuhadā’ has written a brief account of the lives of the Prophets and the Twelve Imams (‘a) as well as issues concerning mourning for them. The most detailed section of this book is dedicated to Imam Husayn (‘a). Another noteworthy book by this particular group of Sunnis is Kamāl al-Dīn Khwārazmī’s al-Maqsad al-Aqsā, which in addition to the lives of the caliphs gives an account of the Twelve Imams (‘a).

Notes:

[42] Kashf al-Ghummah, vol. 2, p. 306. It seems that nothing has remained from the book Ma‘ālim, although parts of it have been mentioned by Irbilī; refer to Kashf al-Ghummah, p. 121.

[43] Tārīkh-e Guzīdah, p. 207.

[44] This book was published with the efforts of the writer of this article (Rasul Ja‘fariyān) by the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Library, Qum. The new edition of this book, after due research on the basis of a newly discovered manuscript, has been published by Ansāriyān Publishers, Qum.
[45] Refer to the Persian quarterly, Nashr-e Dānesh, 14th year of publication (1376 SH, month of Esfand (Feb.-March, 1998), p. 58.

Persian Works by Imamis from the 7th till 10th Centuries

Few Persian works written by the Imamī Shi‘ites during the 7th-10th centuries AH have survived today. However, whatever extant literature of this type is available it is worth full consideration. The invaluable work entitled Naqz by ‘Abd al-Jalīl Qazvīnī Rāzī is a kalāmī-historical book written in defence of Shi‘ites as a refutation of a work written against the Shi‘ites. This important work includes exclusive information from the sixth century AH especially on the Shi‘ites, their cultural situation and the political circumstances of the time. In this book the author also mentions that he has written a book on hadīth ifk[46] in defence of ‘Ayishah. He mentions this work in order to say that the Shi‘ites do not insult the wives of Prophet Muhammad (S) as alleged.

Three works have been compiled by a very active Shi‘ite writer of the late 7th century AH which are all of kalāmī-historical nature. ‘Imād al-Dīn Tabarī the author of Kāmil Bahā’ī, Manāqib al-Tāhirīn and Tuhfat al-Abrār takes a kalāmī-historical look at important Shī‘ah issues and occasionally gives information on the times they were written. The voluminous book Ahsan al-Kibār fī Ma‘rifat al-A’immah al-Abrār by Sayyid Muhammad bin Abī Zayd bin ‘Arabshāh Warāmīnī on the lives of the Imams was written in the year 740 AH. Several copies of this work are found including the manuscript in the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Library. The summary of this book by ‘Alī bin Hasan Zawāreh’ī titled Lawāmi‘ al-Anwār is also available.

The book Rāmesh Afzā-ye Al-i Muhammad by Muhammad bin Husayn Muhtasib is a ten-volume work on the history of the Prophets and Imams (‘a). Muntajab al-Dīn Ibn Bābawayh had seen the book and studied part of it under the author.[47] Two quotations from it are also mentioned in the Manāqib of Ibn Shahr Ashub, one of which concerns the life of Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (‘a) and the other on the knowledge of Imam Sādiq (‘a).[48] Muntajab al-Dīn has mentioned this book in al-Fihrist but no trace has been found of it after the 8th century. Mabāhij al-Muhaj fī Manāhij al-Hujaj is the work of Qutb al-Dīn Kayzarī the outstanding Shi‘ite writer who most probably lived in the sixth century AH. This book which is in Arabic was translated into Persian by Hasan bin Husayn Shī‘ī Sabziwārī in the eighth century under the tllte Bahjat al-Mabāhij. He presented this translation to Khwājah Nizām al-Dīn Yahyā bin Shams al-Dīn who ruled in Khurāsān as one of the commanders of the Sarbedārān movement from 753-759 AH. Bahjat al-Mabāhij was rendered into rhyme during the 10th century AH by the poet Hayratī Tunī of Kāshān. Hasan Shī‘ī Sabziwārī is also the author of Rāhat al-Arwāh wa Munis al-Ashbāh, a book which devotes itself to the life of Prophet Muhammad (S) and his Ahl al-Bayt (‘a). Copies of this work are available.[50]

There is a work titled Tārīkh-i Muhammadī, or Tārīkh-i Rashīdī as it is also known. This book has also been mentioned by two other names: Tārīkh-i Dawāzdah Imām or Fihrist-i A’immah. The description of this book in the library catalogue says: “On the dates of the birth of the Prophet and the Imams as well as their places of birth, their agnomen, titles, geneology and resting place.” The manuscript of this work is in the Tabrīz National Library, number 3626 and dated 20th of Dhī al-Qa‘dah 819 AH.[51] The author of this book is Mullā Hasan Kāshī, who was close to Sultān Muhammad Khodā-Bandah and played an important role in the Tashayyu‘ of that era. He wrote this book in Hillah and Baghdad in the year 708 AH when he was sixty years old.[52] A book under the title Tārīkh-i ‘Itrat was also compiled in the year 803 in Aleppo, Syria, and has recently been published by the late Dāneshpazhuh.[53]

Among the most detailed works on the early history of Islam by Persian-speaking Shi‘ites is Nuzhat al-Kirām wa Bustān al –‘Awām, written by Jamāl al-Dīn Murtazā Muhammad bin Husayn bin Hasan al-Rāzī who lived in the late sixth and early seventh century AH. This two-volume work has recently been researched and published by Muhammad Shīrwānī. The book contains narrations on the characteristics and biography of Prophet Muhammad (S) until the twenty-first chapter. After that until the 30th chapter of the first volume, the author writes about Abī Bakr and other topics. The second volume of the book till the sixtieth chapter focuses on the miracles of the 14 Infallibles till Imam Mahdī (may Allah hasten his reappearance). This work along with the book Ahsan al-Kibār should be considered the most comprehensive Shi‘ite work in Persian written in the medieval period of Iranian history since the advent of Islam. It is worth noting that this book despite being in Persian, drew the attention of Ibn Tāwus who asked it to be translated into Arabic in view of its importance. In one case he has quoted some topics of this book in his own work Faraj al-Mahmum.[54] A maqtal written in Persian verse by Abu al-Mafākhir al-Rāzī in the 6th century, was used as a source for Rawzāh al-Shuhadā’ by Mullā Husayn Kāshifī.
Notes:
[46] Kitāb al-Naqz, pp. 115, 295.
[47] Muntajab al-Dīn, al-Fihrist, p. 108.
[48] Refer to Ta‘līqat al-Fihrist, Muntajab al-Dīn, published by Urmawī, pp. 435, the letter Shīn, p. 394.
[50] Ibid, p. 785.
[51] Munzawī, ‘Alī Naqī, List of Persian Manuscripts, p. 2704
[52] Storey, Persian Literature, p. 899.
[53] Refer to the Introduction in Bustān al-Kirām, p. 15, where the late Dāneshpazhuh has given a account of Arabic and Persian on the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) written by both the Sunnis and the Shi‘ites. Unfortunately this information is not so complete.
[54] Kohlberg, Etan, A Medieval 

Growth of Shi'ism

Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.

The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as successor, and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.
The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and injunctions.

During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided to emigrate to Medina. He said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?" Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known as the hijrah.) Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if Ali had not been present the enemy would most likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual histories, lives of the Prophet, and collections of hadith.

For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali to the "general guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the people and made Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).

It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition, because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because of the great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of the Prophet who knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him. They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet."

Divine Justice (Adl) is the foundation of many Shi'i beliefs

By: Ayatullah Jafar Subhani

All Muslims believe that God is just and that justice is one of the divine attributes of Beauty (jamal). The basis of this belief is the Qur'anic negation of any possibility of injustice on the part of God, referring tcr Him as being `upright in justice'. As it is said: Verily, God wrongeth not even the weight of an atom. (Sura al-Nisa', lv: 4o)

And again: Verily, God wrongeth 'not mankind in anything... (Sura Yunus, x: 44)

Also: God bears witness, (as do also) the angels and the men of knowledge, upright in justice, that there is no God save Him. (Sura Al `Imran, lll: 18)

In addition to the evidence provided by these verses, the intel­lect can discern the justice of God with utmost clarity. For justice is an attribute of perfection (kamal), while injustice is an attribute of imperfection; and the hrrmau intellect perceives that God pos­sesses aall ppossible perfections, and that He is exalted beyond any possibility of imperfection or deficiency-, both as regards His Es­sence and His actions.

In principle, injustice and oppression are always consequences of one of the following factors: (a) ignorance-the one who acts unjustly is unaware of the ugliness of injustice; (b) incapacity and need---either the agent of injustice is aware of the ugliness of injustice, but is unable to enactjustice, or else he is in need of the fruits of his injustice; (c) unscrupulorasness through foolishness­—the agent is both aware of the ugliness of injustice, and he is able to enact justice, but since he lacks wisdom, he, has no scruples about committing unjust acts.

It is clear that none of these factors can have anything to do III,, divine nature, all of God's actions being just and wise. The following hadith corroborates this: Shaykh Saduq relates that a Jew came to the Prophet [Muhammad] asking various questions, some of which related to the question of divine justice. In explaining why God does not comrnit inrjustice, the Prophet said: ‘[it is] because God knows the ugliness of in and is not in any need of it.' Theologians of the `adliyya schoolz have seized upon this key hadith in the debate over the question of divine justice.

Given the verses cited above, and many others of similar import Qur'an, all Muslims are at one over the issue of divine justice; but there is a certain difference of opinion regarding the question of what the justice of God actually means. Muslims have opted for one of the two following positions: The human intellect distinguishes between evil and good action, understanding the latter to indicate the perfection of the agent, and the former the imperfection of the agent. Since God, by nature, possesses all ontological perfectior,s, it follows that His acts must be perfect and pleasing, His most. holy na­-ture being devoid of all kind of evil. It is necessary to mention here that the intellect can never, as itwere, issue an `order' as regards God, saying that God 'must' be just; rather, the task of the intellect is to disclose the true reality of God's actions. In other words, taking due account of the absolute perfection of the divine Essence devoid as It is of any possibility of imperfection, the intellect discloses the fact that His actions also partake of ultimate perfection, and are likewise devoid of any deficierrcy. Consequently, God deals justly in His relations with mankind. Verses from the Qur'an are adduced as evidence corroborat­ing and stressing that which man can perceive, and in Islamic theology this approach goes by the name of 'tire intelligibilitv of good and evil' (husn wa qubh aqli); the adherents of this approach are referred to as the adliyya, the forerunrrers of whom were the scholars of the lmami school.

2. There is another perspective, contrasting with this one, according to which the human intellect is incapable of discrirni­nating bbetween good and evil actions, even in a general way. It is asserted that the distinction between good and evil can only be made on the basis of' divine revelation: that it is God who commands us to do good and God who forbids its from doing evil. According to this perspective, if God were to consign sinless souls to Hell and sinners to Paradise, this Would constitute per­fect goodness aml,justice!-If God is described as Just', it is only because He has lrc°en given this attribute by revelation

Since the principle mf `the intelligibility of good and evil' is the foundation of' many Shi'i beliefs, we ought to mcntion, albeit briefly, two of the marry at gttments from which its validity can be derived.
1. Every individual, wltatever be his religious path or creed and wherever he be mr this hlanet, is capable of grasping the beauty of justice and the ugliness of injustice, the beauty of keeping one's word and the ugliness of breaking it, the virtue of repay­ing goodness with goodness and the vice of repaying goodness with evil. History Shows ample evidence of this truth, and hith­erto the wise have rmvcr dcnied it.

2. If we were to suppose that tlre intellect were incapable-in a universal fashion--uf, grasping the distinction between good and evil acts, and that all people must refer to religion to cu­able them to perceive the goodness or evil of a given act, then we would be forced to accept the concomitant argument that even the validity of the religiously suctioned distinction be­tween good and evil could not be proven. For, assuming that the Lawgiver informs its about the goodness of one action arrd the evil of another, we could riot truly benefit from this information for as long as there were any possibilitv in our minds that the Lawgiver rnay not be speaking the truth.•However, the case would be entirely different if it were already self-evident to us that the Lawgiver is utterly beyond the ugliness of lying-­- and this evidence only conies to us by means of the intellect.27

In addition to these two poirrts, there are also verses from the Qur’an which uphold the principle that the intellect is indeed inherently capable of discriminating between good and evil: Shal we then. treat those who have submitted (al-Muslimun) as we treat the guilty? what aileth you? How foolishly ye judge! (Sura al-Qalam, Lxvlll: 35-36)

In this verse, a question is posed, and we are able to provide the answer: Is the reward of goodness other than goodness? (Sura al-Rahman, Lv: 60)

In the following verse, God says: He will not be questioned as to that which He doeth, bud they will be ques­tioned. (Sura al-Anbiya', xxl: 23)

Now the question might arise: God knows that He is too exalted to be accountable to anyone, therefore no action of His can be called to account; but if we operate on the basis of an intellec­tually posited distinction between good and evil, then, supposing that God were to commit [what may appear to us as] an `evil' act, we would have to ask: why has this act been committed? The response to this is as follows: the reason why God is not called to commit is, precisely, because He is Wise, and a wise agent cannot commit any type of unjust action, for wisdom is always inseparable from good action, so there can be no possible action that one might call into qucstion on the part of God.28
There are various ways in which Divine justice is expressed as re­gards the three domains of (a) creation, (b) religious dispensation, and (c) heavenly recompense. We shall explain some of these below, taking each of these domains in turn.

Justice in creation

God bestows upon each existent entity that which is appropriate to it, never depriving it of the receptivity inherent in its nature; this receptivity being determined at the pane of effusion of Be­ing, and in the invisible dimension in which the act of bestowing existence occurs. As the Qur'an says: OurLord is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright. (Sura Ta Ha, xx:5o)

Justice in religious dispensation

God guides man--endowed as he is with the capacity to acquire spiritual perfection-by sending Messengers to establish religious laws. He does not impose alrov mall obligations that go beyond his capacity. As the Qur'an says: Verily God enjoineth justice and kinedss and generosity to kinsfolk, and forbiddeth lewdness and abomination and wickedness. He exhorteth you in order that ye may take heed. (SUra al-Nahl, xvl: 90)

Since justice, kindness and generosity contribute to human perfection, while the other three elements mentioned contribut to man's downfall, the first three qualities have been made ob­ligatory, and the second three are prohibited. Likewise, as regards man not being charged with religious obligations that are beyond his capacity, the Qur'an says: And We task not any soul beyond its scope ... (Sura al-Mu'minun, XXIIl: 62)

Justice in recompense

When it comes to apportioning reward and punishment, God never treats the believer in the same way as the disbeliever, the good in the same way as the bad; rather, He gives each person an appropriate, fitting recompense: Accordingly. God will never pun­ish people whose religious obligations have not been revealed by mean of divinely-guided Messengers, and who have not, con­sequently, received the full force of the divine proof.29 As the Qur’an says: We never punish until We have sent a Messenger. (Sura Bani Isra'il, xvll: 15)

And also: And we set a just balance for the Day of Resurrection so that no soul is wronged in aught. (Sura al-Anbiya', xxl:47)

God created man, and this creation has a purpose. This purpose is that man attain the plenitude of all that the human soul can aspire to, doing so by means of the graces realized through devotion to God. Whenever man is guided to the point where he becomes aware of this purpose, and pledges himself to undertake the first step leading to its realization, God Himself sees to it that they are indeed accomplished. Without this divine help, the creation of man would be lacking any means of realizing the perpose of creation. It is for this reason that Messengers were sent to mankind, providing them with both explanations and miraculous acts. Thus, God proclaims messages containing prom­ises and threats, with a view to inspiring His slaves with earnest desire (targhib) for obedience, and with fearful anxiety (tahdhir) to avoid disobedience.

What has been expressed above is a summary of the principle of loving-kindness (lutf) in the `adlivyat.heology,which infact con­stitutes one of the branches of the principle of discernment between good and evil, the foundation of many theological

Divine Decree (Qada') and Measure (Qadar)

Belief in the principles of Qada and Qadar is of extreme Impor­tance iin Islam, figuring prominently in the divine Scripture mid in the hadiths of the Prophet; it is a belief that is strengthened also by intellectual ar,tiurnents. _f here are many verses in the Qur'an concerning these two principles; we quote a few of these below. First, in relation to mwusru-e (Qadar): Verily, We have created everything by measure.(Sirra al-Qamar, Llv: 49)

And there is riot a thing but with Us are the treasuries therefor, and we send it not down save in appointed measure.(SUra al-Hijr, xv: 21)

As regards the divine decree (qada): When, He decreeth a thing, He said unto it only: Be!, And it is. (Sura al­Baqara, ll: 117)

He is Who hath created you from clay, and hath decreed a termz for you. (Sura al-An'am, V1:2)

Taking these verses, along with a larger number of' hadiths of similar import, no Muslim Can deny the reality of divine predesti­nation. However, an analytical knowledge of all the minute details of this complex question is not necessary; and, in principle, for those who lack the conceptual dexterity to assimilate this type of subtle reality, it would be better lo avoid entering into discussions and deliberations upon it. For all trm many are liable to open themselves up to erroneous doctrines mr be thrown into dotrbt and lose their way. It is in regard to just such a type, one feels, that Imam `Ali said: `This [doctrine of predestination] is a dark path--­do not traverse it; a deep ocean--do not enter it; and a divine mystery-do not try and unveil it.30

Needless to say, the Imam's will oiy here is directed to those who cannot comprehend such complex and subtle doctriues, con­sidering the large number of people that would have become coofrrsed if they were to enter into debate on such questions. But elsewhere, the lmam has been quite forthcoming with regard to intellectrral explanations of the ductrirre.;' Therefore we shall endeavour, within the limits imposed by our own knowledge, to explain this doctrine by highlighting certain Qur'anic verses and hadiths, and offering brief comments on them.

The term qadar in the Arabic language means `measure' and `portion' and qada pertains to that which is definite and decided.32 The eighth Imam, Imam Rida, said by way of' commentary upon these two terms: `Qadar is to be understood as the measuring out of a thing in relation to its subsistence (baqa) and its extinction (fana); and qada' is the bestowal upon a given entity of its definitive capacity to actualize itself."33

Commentary on Qadar

Each creature, insofar as it is a contingent being (mumkin al-wujud) has a particurlar existential limit and extent. All things other than God exist in a particular way, are limited in differing degrees, take on different modes of existence: minerals have a particrrlar existential measrrre or 'cut', differing frorn that of 'plants and aninals. just as the very existence that is apportioned to all things is itself a creature of God, likewise, the initial measuring out (taqdir) of all things comes from Him. Therefore, this measuring out of existence can be understood as an act of God: it is referred to as ‘active determination and apportioning in act'. This, in turn, is to be understood in the light of the following: Before creating a thing, God already knows it in its unrnanifest state of latency or potenti­ality; this being referred to as determination and apportioning in knowledge'.

Belief in qadar is tantamount to belief in the creatorship of God as regards the particular properties of all things, and His ‘active determination' of things rests upon His pre-eternal knowledge; in consequence, belief in the divine knowledge of qadar is but a function of belief in the eternal knowledge of God.

Commentary on Qada'

As mentioned above, qada' is to be understood as thc Icsmwal of definitive existence upon an entity. Naturally, the process by which this definitive existence is attained rests upon the operation of the law of cause and effect. A thing receives its cxi.smvrwc its a re­sult oof the complete actualization of the causo of its oxistence. Insofar as this law of causality derives ultimamlv In-mv God, the reality of the definitive nature of each existing mnitv rusts upon the power and will of God. There is an `active' qada' wlrich oper­ates at the level of creation, and an `essential' qyln' w Iv iol v pertains to God's eternal knowledge of all things such as they are before they come into being.

What has been said so far has been in relatimv to creative qada' and qadar-whether in essential or active mode. But both princi­ples also apply to the realm of religious dispensation, in that the principle of religious obligation is also determined by divine qada'; and the particular properties of these obligationvs --as wgards what is necessary, forbidden, and so on-also drive from `religious pre-determination' (taqdir tashri’i). In reply to someone question­ing the reality of qada' arid qadar, Imam `Ali referred to this ontological level and said: `The meaning ml qndn' arrcl qadar per­tains to commanding obedience arid forbiddmg disobedience; the bestowing of power upon man to perform good works and renounce evil works; the provision of grace to increase nearness to God; delivering up the sinners to their own [inner] states; the making of promises and threats-all these relate to the qada' and qadar of God in regard to our actions. 34

We can see from this r \eply that the Imam restricted himself to speaking about qada' and qadar in relation to religious dispensa­tion, possibly on account of his awareness of the need for the questioner-and those present at the the particular attitude and state of soul that the questioner lacked. For, at that time, the issue of existential prrclwstirratica, and its implications as regards human action, was leading towards an ab­solute pre-determinism (jabr), and therewith thcv negation of free will (ikhtiyar). Evidence for onr interpretation is given by the fact that the hadith continues as follows: 'Do not speculate on anything other than this, for such speculation will nullify your actions.' The meaning here is that the value of man's actions is predicated upon his free will; and a belief in the absolute pre-determinism of ac­ction annuls this freedom, and hence the value of human action.

To conclude: qadd' and qadar are applicable both to creation and to religious dispensation, and each of these two realms comprises two modes: an 'essential' mode, related to divine knowledge; and an 'active' mode, related to manifestation.

Divine predestination is not in the least incompatible with humam free will. For what God has ordained for man is, precisely, free will, the very feature which distinguishes him from the ani­mals; man has been ordained a free agent, capable of choosing to perform or to abstain from his actions. The divine decree in re­gard to human action is that, once the will and desire to perform a given action are established, the action will follow decisively. In other words, the very creation of man inherently comprises free­dom as regards human will, along with its capacity to evaluate and judge; in this respect, the divine decree is that whenever man decides upon an action, and possesses the necessary means to perform it, a divine power brings into effect the accomplishment of the action in question.

There are those who believe that their sinfulness is the prod­uct of divine predestination, and that it was never in fact possible for them to have chosen any path other than the one which they in fact followed; but both intellect and revelation alike repudiate such as opinion. From the intellectual point of view, man deter­mins his destiny by means of his own decisions; from the religious point of view also, man is deemed to have the capacity to be either pious and grateful or impious and wicked, as the Qur'an says: Verily, we have shown him the way, whether he be grateful or disbelieving. (sura al-Insan, Lxxvl: 3)

At the time of the Revelation, one party of idolators attributed their idol-worship to the will of God, arguing that were it not His will, they would not have worshipped idols. The Qur'an relates their fanciful notion thus: Those who are idolators will say: Had God only willed, we would not have ascribed [unto Him] partners, neither would our fathers, nor would we have forbidden anything,.

The response then follows: Thus did those who were before them give the lie, till they tasted of the fear of Us. (Sura al-An`am, vl: 148)

To conclude this discussion, let its remind ourselves that the universal pathways established by God in the created universe­some terminating in the altimate felicity of man, others in his utter ruin-theso pathways are but manifestations of divine pre­destination; and man, alone, has the freedom to choose either one of 'these paths.

Man and Free Will

Human free will is a self-evidew realitv which can be assimilated by man in various ways, some of-which we shall discuss here.

1. The conscience of each person bears testimony to his ability to decide either to perform or to abstain from a given action; if this self-evident fact be denied, then no axiornatic truth what­soever can ever be accepted.

2. Throughout human society--religiously governed or other­wise--one finds that widely differing persons are subject to praise or blame; this should be taken as a sign that the attribu­tion of free will to the individual is a universally encountered fact.

3. If the free will of the individual were non-existent, the dictates of religion would be vain and futile. For if each individual were helpless in regard to his life, he would be compelled to con­tinue to follow the course of life that had been established for him previously, and thus unable to deviate by even an inch from that path; in such a case' tile religious commands and prohibitions, promises and threats, rewards and punishments, would all be utterly meaningless.

4. Throughout the course of lwrnan history, one obsorves that the reform of the individrtal and of socierv has been an overriding concen, to which end many programmes and policies have been promulgated, yielding clear results.It is evident that such efforts are entirely incompatible with belief in determinism as regards human action, for if the individual were assumed to be devoid of free will, all such efforts Would be, a waste of time.

These four points decisively and irrefutable establish thc reality of free will. However, the principle of free will does not allow us to conclude that rrran possesses absolute liberty, and that God exercise no influence over his actions. For such a belief: called tafwid; contradicts the principle of man's eternal dependence upon God; it also restricts sphere of power and creativity proper to God. This is an erroneous opinion, as will be made clearer in the following Article.

After the passing away of tlu: Holy Prophet, one of the questiorrs that engaged Muslim thinkers was that of the nature of human action. One group adopted the viewpoint of determinism (jabr), regarding man as an intrinsically constrained agent; another group took the diametrically opposite position, conceiving of 'man as an entity delivered up entirely to his own resources, his actions having no connection at all with God. Both groups upheld an exclusivist point of view: action either devolved entirely upon man or entirely upon God, it was either human power that was effective or ­divine power.
There is, however, a third perspective, the one upheld by the Holy Imams of the ahl al-bayt. Imam Sadiq stated: `Neither compulsion (jabr) nor complete freedom (tafwid): rather, something between the two. 35

In other words, although action devolves upon man, it is also dependent upon God; for the action proceeds from the human agent, but since in reality the agent, along with his power, is cre­ated by God, how can one consider the action of such an agent to be independent of God?

The way in which the ahl al-bayt clarify the reality of human action is nothing other than the way oft he Qur'an. This revealed Scripture occasionally refers action both to its immediate agent and to God, rendering one and the same action susceptible of dual attribution. As the following verse says:

... And thou threwest not when thou didst throw [a handful of dust], but God threw. (Sura al-Anfal, vlll: 17)

The meaning here is that whenever the Holy Prophet under­took an action, he did not do so on the sole basis of his independent agency or power; rather, the action was accomplished through the power of God. Thus, the attribution of the action to two sources is sound and correct. Put differently, the power and might of God are present within every phenomenon; this touches upon a mystery which we might try and conrprehend by means of the following simile: A current of electricity, generated by a power­station, is present in electric wires; however, it is we who switch the lights on and off. It is correct to say that we switch on the light, just as it is also correct to say that the light of the bulb is derived from the electric current.

An integral aspect of our belief in man's free will is our certainty of God's foreknowledge of all our actions from pre-eternity. There is no contradiction between these two beliefs. Whoever cannot in fact reconcile them should consider carefully that the eternal knowledge of God encompasses the principle by which actions proceed from the free will of man; naturally, there is no contra­diction between such fore-knowledge, on the one hand, and human freedom, on the other.

Fiqh and Ijtihad in Shia'ism

It is wajib (obligatory) for Muslims to study everything which is necessary for the physical and spiritual well being and development of the Muslim community. The waajibaat is known as wajib e kifaii. This means that the obligation is on the community as a whole; but when an individual or a group of people endeavour to devote themselves to the required sciences, then the obligation is lifted from the rest of the community. This applies to all fields of knowledge.

One of the most important sciences where experts are needed is the science of religion - shari’a. It is wajib for a group of people to devote themselves to the science of religion so as to provide guidance for the Muslim community.

The Qur’an exhorts us in this matter:

“..Why should not a group from every section of the believers go forth and become learned in religion; and to warn their people when they return to them, that they may become aware?”

Qur’an - Suratut Tawba - 9:122

Those who take up this noble task are known as the mujtahideen.

They are also known as fuqaha (singular - faqih).

A mujtahid is one who does ijtihad.

The literal meaning of ijtihad is to strive with one’s total ability and efforts to reach a goal which in this case is to endeavour to deduce the divine laws of shari’a from the reliable sources and proofs.

To reach the stage of Ijtihad therefore is the capacity to give an expert opinion in the matter of religion.

The ijtihad that is forbidden (haram) is that where a mujtahid gives a rule by his own personal judgement, that is, one based neither on the Qur’an nor on the Sunnah.

The word marja’ literally means one to whom we turn to (do ruju’). He is one who is a point of reference.

There are many pre-requisites of ijtihad:

Learning the Arabic language to the extent that is required. Knowledge of the colloquialism of Arabic and the language of the people to whom the Qur’an and the sunna was addressed to.

Commentary (tafseer) of the Qur’an.

Logic (mantiq). Every branch of learning in which reasoning is used needs logic (understanding).

The study of Ahadith.

Knowledge of the transmitters of ahadith (rijal), to the extent where one is able to discern the validity of the ahadith.

The study of the principles of fiqh (jurisprudence).

Thorough research and study of the views of others.

Review of the verdicts and narrations of the Ahlus Sunnah.

Striving to make use of all of one’s abilities in deducing the rules.

Once these pre-requisites have been met, then to be able to derive the laws of Shari’a a mujtahid uses the following four sources:

1) The Qur’an

2) The Sunnah (meaning the words, actions and silent assertions (taqreer) of the Prophet (S.A.W.) and the Aimma.

3) Consensus (ijma)

4) Reasoning (aql)

1) The Qur’an

This is no doubt the first source for the laws and regulations of Islam. Approximately one thirteenth of the Qur’an pertains to laws.

2) The Sunnah

This means the words, actions and assertions of the Ma’sumeen. The study of the narrators is an important part in asserting the validity of the hadith.

3) Ijmaa (Consensus)

Consensus means the general agreement of the ulema of a particular period on a particular issue. Consensus in it’s own right is not binding, and must be supported by the Sunnah.

However, the Ahlus Sunnah believe that complete agreement of all the Muslims of one period on an issue is a divine revelation and it cannot be wrong.

4) Aql (Reason)

What is meant here is that sometimes a law of shari’a is determined by the proof of reason.

One of the obvious elements of Islam is that each command (amr) of Shari’a is there to meet the best interests of human beings and each prohibition (nahyi) arises from the necessity of preventing the corruption of the human being.

Thus, because the laws of shari’a are centred on the wisdom of what is best and worst for the human being physically and spiritually, they will correspond to the laws of reasoning.

Therefore, if we suppose that in some case there is no law communicated to us in the Qur’an or in the Sunnah, the wisdom of the other judgements of shari’a will automatically discover the law for the case in question.

e.g. At the time (and place) of the Prophet (S.A.W.) there was no addiction to drugs like Marijuana, and we have no narrated proofs of it by name in the Qur’an, Sunnah and consensus. With our reason and knowledge, and on the basis of ‘a form of corruption which is essentially to be avoided’, and because we know that whatever is harmful to human beings and a corruption of them is haram in the view of Shari’a, we realise that Marijuana is forbidden. Here, we have a basic principle to work on.

However. Qiyaas (analogy) is forbidden. This is where one deduces a law due to it’s resemblance to another law based on opinion and imagination rather then reason and certitude. Among the ulema of the Ahlus Sunnah, Abu Haneefa considered qiyaas (analogy) to be the fourth source.

Imam Ja’fer As-Sadiq (A.S.) tried to show Abu Haneefa the error of qiyaas - It is reported that in a conversation about the subject, Imam (A.S.) asked him: “What is more important? Salaa or Sawm?”
Abu Haneefa replied: “Salaa!”

Imam said: “Then why do women have to repay their qadha sawm during their monthly periods and not the qadha salaa?”

“What is more najis? Urine or stool?” Imam asked

Abu Haneefa replied: “Stool!”

Imam said: “Then why do you need water to make the area tahir after urine, but in the case of stool paper will suffice?”

Other necessary conditions for being a mujtahid

Imam Ja’fer As-Sadiq (A.S.) is reported to have said:

“....If there is anyone among the fuqaha who is in control over his own self, protects his religion, suppresses his evil desires, and is obedient to the commands of his Master (Allah), then the people should follow him.”

A Mujtahid therefore, must also be a free man of legitimate birth who is past the age of puberty, sane, a Shia Ithna asheri and adil (not only just but also one who obeys all the waajibaats and keeps away from the muharramaat).

TAQLEED

“...But as to those amongst the fuqaha, who safeguards his soul, takes care of his deen, opposes his desires, and obeys the commands of his Lord, then it is for the people to do his taqleed..”

Aimma (A.S.)

According to common sense, anyone who has not attained the level of knowledge that will enable him/her to deduce religious laws for him/herself, must turn to a person who has specialised in this field. Just as we voluntarily follow the advice of a doctor when we need medical attention, and firmly believe that the advice will cure our illness and protect us from infection; the same way we follow the guidance of a Mujtahid who knows the laws of shari’a so that he may lead us correctly and save us from an erroneous way. It is this following which is termed taqleed. The follower of a Mujtahid is known as a Muqallid.

Taqleed therefore is not imitation as an animal would do but a conscious decision by an individual to accept the opinions of a learned scholar. It is the mujtahid who takes the responsibility of expressing his opinion and not the followers.

How does an ordinary believer know which mujtahid he/she should follow?
There are three recognised ways:

By his/her own personal knowledge and experience (assuming that one is oneself an aalim and able to identify a mujtahid).

By the testimony of 2 aadil, knowledgeable persons who are religiously aware (people who are able to know another’s knowledge).

By a degree of popularity which leaves no doubt as to a person being a mujtahid.

Most ulema maintain that we must follow a mujtahid who is ‘A’lam’ - the most learned in deriving the laws of shari’a from the sources discussed. Marhum Ayatullah Syed Abul Qasim Al-Khui (A.R.) and Ayatullah Syed Ali Al-Husayni Seestani both confirm in their risalah that the qualification of being ‘A’lam’ is essential for a mujtahid whose taqleed is to be done.

The ‘A’lam’ may be recognised in any of the 3 ways in which a mujtahid is recognised.

It follows, therefore that to recognise an A’lam mujtahid, one has to be fairly aware of the principles of Fiqh and it’s applications. This is why we are told to depend on Ahlul Khibra - those who are well versed and experienced. Ahlul Khibra is a term used for groups of mujtahideen.

Sometimes, it is difficult for the Ulema to distinguish whom among all the mujtahideen is the most learned, and as a result a muqallid may have to choose a Mujtahid from several ones.

Why is there a difference of opinion amongst different mujtahideen on a particular subject?

Firstly, it is important to know that the differences in opinion are never contradictory. i.e. it is impossible to find a mujtahid who will say that one action is wajib and another saying it is haram.

The existence of differences of opinions (not difference in principles) is not a sign of a defect in the quest of knowledge; it is rather a sign of progression in knowledge towards perfection.

Differences of opinion are found in all sciences, not just in fiqh.

Who is a Waliyul Faqih?

A waliyul faqih is one who is a guardian of the fuqaha. He* is not only learned in the science of religion as the other fuqaha; but also one who establishes social justice amongst people. He is accepted by Ahlul Khibra as the waliyul faqih.

*As suggested by some Ulema, this authority may be a composition of mujtahideen (a central authoritative body) if needed.

What is the difference between marja’ taqleed and waliyul faqih?

By Ayatullah Ruhullah Al-Musawi Khumayni (A.R.)

i) Besides having the knowledge of shari’a, justice and ijtihad, he must have a full grasp of politics of religion, sufficient courage and qualities of management for leadership and must be aware of the social and political issues of the day.

ii) When the waliyul faqih issues an order (amr) according to the best interests of the Umma, that order becomes wajib on everyone - even those who follow another marja’ e taqleed.

e.g. When Mirza Muhammad Hasan Shirazi was the waliyul faqih, he issued an order likening the use of tobacco to fighting against Imam e Zamana (A.S.). This was in the best interests of the Muslim Umma for in 1891 the British wished to manipulate the economy of Iran through the tobacco industry to colonise Iran as they did to India. Everyone, including the other mujtahideen followed this order and defeated the British plan.

iii) The position of marja’ taqleed can be occupied by several mujtahideen at the same time but there can only be one central authority for wilayatul faqih, otherwise the result would be disunity and discord in the Umma.

An important suggestion

By Shaheed Murtadha Mutahhari (A.R.)

April 21st 1961 - 3 weeks after the death of Ayatullah Burujurdi (A.R.)

“I have a suggestion which might be very fruitful for the advancement of our Fiqh. It was formerly proposed by the late Ayatullah AL-Hajj Shaykh Abd Al-Karim Al-Yazdi (d. 1355/1936) may God exalt his station, and I repeat it here.

He had said that there is no need for the people to follow an individual in all matters. It will be better if different specialised branches of fiqh be established, with every group, after completing a general course in fiqh, take up it’s own field of specialisation. The people should also follow the specialists in matters related with that branch. For instance, some should specialise in matters of ibadat, and some others in mua’malat, others in politics and still some others in judicial matters and so on. This is done, for instance, in medicine where many fields of specialisation have come into being... If this is done in fiqh also, everyone can do better work in his field.....

Council of Fuqaha

I would like to make yet another suggestion and I believe that the more is said about these matters the better it is. While everywhere in the world specialised fields are formed in all disciplines bringing about tremendous advancements, there is another factor which has contributed to this progress, that is, the co-ordination and co-operation of top class scholars and authorities in all spheres of learning. Nowadays, individual thinking and individual labour has no value. Scholars and intellectuals of every field are always busy in exchanging views with one another, and communicating their findings to others. Even the scientists of one continent work and confer with those of other continents. As a result of this co-operation amongst the scholars of the first rank , if any useful theory is submitted , it spreads soon everywhere; on the other hand if it emerges as a false theory, the invalidity is also readily proved and discarded, as a result saving the scholar from continuing in error for years......

Although the value of scientific progress and exchange is very much obvious and there is no need for any proof or argument, but in order to show that this foresighted and progressive tradition is not a new thing in Islam, I will quote an aya from the Qur’an and a passage from Nahjul Balagha:

In Suratul Shura, it is stated:

“...And those who answer the call of their Lord, establish salaa, and conduct their affairs by mutual consultation, and who bestow in alms a part of that which We have given them...”

Qur’an - Suratul Shura - 42:38

...Therefore from the viewpoint of Islam, collective thinking and exchange of views is one of the principles operating actively in the lives of it’s followers and men of faith.

In Nahjul Balagha (Khutba No 214), Imam Ali (A.S.) says:

“Know that those servants of God, who have been entrusted with the knowledge of God, they guard His secret, and make His springs flow (i.e. they open the stream of knowledge for people). They keep friendly and cordial relations with one another, meet each other with heartiness and warmth, and serve one another cups of knowledge and learning, one person passing it to the other who in turn offers his own. As a result everyone is satiated and satisfied.”

If scientific councils are formed in Fiqh, the principles in exchange of views will be realised in it’s complete form; Islamic fiqh will tread the path of progress and advancement, and many disagreements in fatawas will also disappear....

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

A theology student has three levels to go through to become an mujtahid or a faqih. These are as follows:

I. Introductory Level (muqaddamat)

This level of theological education concentrates an Arabic grammar, syntax, rhetorics etc., as well as some literature and logic. Theological seminaries mostly teach general books in this level. The reason for the emphasis on Arabic is that the Quran and all the important Islamic books and the ahadith are in Arabic. It would normally take seven years to complete this stage. The following books are taught in this level in the order of priority:

Jami’ul-Muqaddamat is in 14 small volumes, in Farsi and Arabic. Arabic grammar, syntax, logic, method of reading and exercises in conjugation are taught. The objective of the course is to teach introductory Arabic syntax to the student and to prepare him for learning the subsequent courses. Books recently used for this course are The New Arabic, and simple Grammar.

Siuti explains Arabic syntax. The new book used for this course is Al-Qava’id ul-Assassi (Basic Principles).

Mughani completes the grammar and syntax courses and teaches the student Arabic grammar in relation to literature. Tahzib is the new book used for the course.

Hashieh teaches the student basic logic. The new book used in the field is Al-Mantiq (The Logic).
Mutaval, or a summary of it, teaches rhetorics and speech. The objective of the course is to familiarise the student with the art of speech and rhetoric and to enable him to understand the Quran and more difficult texts. The new books used for the course are Balaghat (Eloquence) or Javahir ul-Balagha (Essence of Eloquence).

II. Inetermediate Level (sat’h)

Sat’h means superficies, and is referred to reading directly from the books and learning from them. When a theology student completes the requirements of the introductory stage, he is promoted to the intermediate level. Here, he is taught Islamic theology and principles which he learns to reason out. It normally takes eight years to complete the intermediate level. Only the larger and more important theological seminaries run the intermediate course.

The following books are taught in this level in order of priority:

Ma’alem ul-Usool teaches the student basic theology in a reasoned manner

.
The new book used for the purpose is a summary of Ma’alem.

Qavanin, authored by Mirza-e Qummi, teaches theology in more depth. The
new book used is Usul ul-Fiqh.

Lum’ah, by Shahid Thani, teaches the foundations of canonical theology (ijtihad).

Makasib, authored by Sheikh Murtadha Ansari, teaches canonical problems and profound answers to them and aims at getting the student to master the rules of Islamic theology and its application.

Rasa’il teaches rational reasons of theology and aims at getting the student to master the rational reasons of theology.

Kefayat ul-Usool, authored by Mulla Mohammad Kazem Khurassani, teaches theology and its principles as well as its problems, and establishes full mastery of theology and its problems. Theology students may also take selective courses at this level, in the following order of priority:

Manzuma teaches a series of basic philosophy lessons and is a prerequisite for theology students who plan to read philosophy. The length of this course together with isharat is three years.

Isharat teaches philosophy and gnosticism.

Bidayat ul-Hakama teaches a summary of philosophical titles and topics in one year.

Nahayat ul-Hakama teaches philosophical topics in the intermediate level in two years.

Assfar is a descriptive course of philosophical topics at the advanced level, taught in three years.

Sharh-e Tajrid teaches natural sciences and divinities as viewed by orators and aims to teach the theology student the arguments in two years.

Maqamat-e Hariri and Maqamat-e Hamedani familiarise theology students with Arabic literature. Each would take two and a half years but Mu’alaqat-e Sab’a may also be read together with one of them.
III. Advanced Level (kharij)

Having mastered the lower courses and understood the narrations and hadiths, the theology student enters the advanced level with the permission of his teachers and upon sitting some kind of examination.

This level, in fact, is the stage of research for a theology student, leading him ultimately to become an Islamic jurisprudent or theologian. (marja’ taqlid) themselves.

On this level, the teacher discusses the opinions of the important Islamic canonists and those of his own and allows his students to enter debates with him. This stage of theological education may go on for as long as needed for the theology student to acquire the power of interpreting theological issues , and form his own opinion and judgement about them.

Nevertheless the students may leave from theological seminaries at any stage they wish. Only a smaller number continue their theological education to become scholars and a larger number drop out after completing one or two stages. No certificates of graduation are issued by the seminaries. However, when a theology student becomes a scholar, his teacher or teachers issue a certificate at his request which authorises him to use his own judgement concerning theological issues. Ijtihad) means the power to refer to the four sources of reason, the Quran, Tradition, Concensus and Wisdom, and interpret the theological issues on their basis.

Topics

As explained before, topics of study in theological seminaries consist of Arabic literature, principles of theology, theology and rational sciences which include logic, arguments and philosophy. The first three are more in demand than the last in which works by Islamic philosophers such as Mulla Sadra and Mulla Haadi Sabzevari are taught.

In the advanced level, other courses are also taught. These include:
Rijal, which is a research into biographies of hadith tellers.

Diraya, which discusses the documents on the basis of which hadiths are told, and the course through which a document is traced back to the original text.

History of Islam, Ethics, Interpretations, astronomy are other courses taught. Moreover, studies of sociology, psychology, English or other foreign languages have become more common in the past few years.

Characteristics of Theological Education

Education in theological seminaries has certain characteristics which distinguish it from modern education. The most important of those is that neither the period of education, nor the manner of graduation is pre-planned and compulsory. The theology student chooses his own teacher ever since he begins his theological education and continues to study with the same teacher as long as he himself deems fit.

Moreover, in the absence of a system of issuing graduation certificates, theology students are free to take their courses at their own pace. The same freedom is apparent in teaching. A theology student who has been studying for a few years, has the right to enter debates with his teacher and take fault with his statements. To prepare for lessons, theology students usually consult various theology books and go through the opinions of theological authorities. Upon receiving a lesson, they debate the lessons among themselves in order to master essence of the lessons. This method of studying helps theology students to develop in debating and discussions. They gain more skills by preaching to the public, usually to earn an income.

The Term "Shia" in Quran and Hadith

The word "Shia" means "followers; members of party". As such, the term "Shia" alone has no negative or positive meaning unless we specify the leader of the party. If one is a Shia (follower) of the most righteous servants, then there is nothing wrong with being Shia, specially if the leader of such party has been assigned by Allah. On the other hand, if one becomes the Shia a tyrant or a wrong-doer, he shall meet with the fate of his leader. In fact, Quran indicates that on the day of Judgment people will come in groups, and each group has its leader in front of it. Allah, to whom belong Might and Majesty, said: One day We shall call every group of people by their respective Imams. (Quran 17:71)

In the day of judgment, the destiny of the "followers" of each group highly depends on the destiny of his Imam (provided that they really followed that Imam). Allah mentioned in Quran that there are two types of Imams. Some Imams are those who invite people to Hell fire. They are tyrannical leaders of each era (like Pharaoh, etc.): And We made them (but) Imams inviting to the Fire; and on the Day of Judgment no help shall they find. In this world We continued to curse them; and on the Day of Judgment they will be among the hateful. (Quran 28:41-42).

Certainly, being the members of the parties of such Satanic Imams has been severely denounced in Quran, and the followers of such parties will meet the fate of their leaders. However, Quran also reminds that there are Imams who are appointed by Allah as Guides for the mankind: "And We ASSIGNED from among them some Imams who GUIDE by Our authority since they were patient and believed firmly in Our Signs." (Quran 32:24)

Certainly, the true followers (Shia) of these Imams will be the real prosperous on the day of resurrection. Thus being a Shia does not mean anything, unless we know the Shia of whom. Allah mentioned in Quran that Some of His righteous servants were Shia of His other righteous servants. An example was Prophet Abraham who was mentioned in Quran specifically as the Shia of Noah: "And most surely Abraham was among the Shia of him (i.e., Noah)" (Quran 37:83)

(Notice that the word "Shia" is explicitly used, letter by letter, in the above verse as well as the following verse.) In another verse, Quran talks about the Shia of Moses versus the enemies of Moses: "And he (Moses) went into the city at a time when people (of the city) were not watching, so he found therein two men fighting, one being of his Shia and the other being his enemy, and the one who was of his Shia cried out to him for help against the one who was of his enemy" (Quran 28:15)

In the above verse of Quran, one is named the Shia of Moses (AS) and the other one is named the enemy of Moses, and the people at that time were either the Shia or the enemy of Moses (AS). Thus Shia is an official word used by Allah in His Quran for His high rank prophets as well as their followers. Do you want to say Prophet Abraham was sectarian? How about Prophet Noah and Prophet Moses?

If somebody calls himself a Shia, it is not due to any sectarianism, nor any innovation. It is because Quran has used the phrase for some of His best servants. The above verses that I mentioned in support of Shia, has used this term singular form (i.e., one group of followers). This means that it has special meaning, such as: THE Shia of Noah (AS), THE Shia of Moses (AS). Also in the History of Islam, Shia has been specially used for the "followers of Ali". The first individual who used this term was the Messenger of Allah himself: The Messenger of Allah said to Ali: "Glad tiding O Ali! Verily you and your companions and your Shia (followers) will be in Paradise.

"
Sunni references: Fadha'il al-Sahaba, by Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, v2, p655 Hilyatul Awliyaa, by Abu Nu'aym, v4, p329 Tarikh, by al-Khateeb al-Baghdadi, v12, p289 al-Awsat, by al-Tabarani Majma' al-Zawa'id, by al-Haythami, v10, pp 21-22 al-Darqunti, who said this tradition has been transmitted via numerous authorities. al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar Haythami , Ch. 11, section 1, p247

Thus the Messenger of Allah (PBUH&HF) used to say the phrase of "Shia of Ali". This phrase is not something invented later! Prophet Muhammad (PBUH&HF) said that the TRUE followers of imam Ali will go to Paradise, and this is a great felicity. Also Jabir Ibn Abdillah al-Ansari narrated that: The Messenger of Allah (PBUH&HF) said: "The Shia of Ali are the real victorious in the day of resurrection/rising"

Sunni references: al-Manaqib Ahmad, as mentioned in: Yanabi al-Mawaddah, by al-Qundoozi al-Hanafi, p62 Tafsir al-Durr al-Manthoor, by al-Hafidh Jalaluddin al-Suyuti, who quotes the tradition as follows: "We were with the Holy Prophet when Ali came towards us. The Holy Prophet said: He and his Shia will aquire salvation on the day of judgment."

The "day of rising" may also refer to the day of rising of al-Mahdi (AS). But in more general term, it means the day of judgment. Also it is narrated that: The Messenger of Allah said: "O Ali! On the Day of Judgment I shall resort to Allah and you will resort to me and your children will resort to you and the Shia will resort to them. Then you will see where they carry us. (i.e. to Paradise)"
Sunni reference: Rabi al-Abrar, by al-Zamakhshari

Furthermore, it is narrated that: The Messenger of Allah said: "O Ali! (On the day of Judgment) you and your Shia will come toward Allah well-pleased and well-pleasing, and there will come to Him your enemies angry and stiff-necked (i.e., their head forced up).

Sunni references: al-Tabarani, on the authority of Imam Ali al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar al-Haythami, Ch. 11, section 1, p236

A more complete version of the tradition which has also been reported by the Sunnis, is as follows: Ibn Abbas (RA) narrated: When the verse "Those who believe and do righteous deeds are the best of the creation (Quran 98:7)" was revealed, the Messenger of Allah (PBUH&HF) said to Ali: "They are you and your Shia." He continued: "O Ali! (On the day of Judgment) you and your Shia will come toward Allah well-pleased and well-pleasing, and your enemies will come angry with their head forced up. Ali said: "Who are my enemies?" The Prophet (PBUH&HF) replied: "He who disassociates himself from you and curses you. And glad tiding to those who reach first under the shadow of al-'Arsh on the day of resurrection." Ali asked: "Who are they, O the Messenger of Allah?" He replied: "Your Shia, O Ali, and those who love you."

Sunni references: al-Hafidh Jamaluddin al-Dharandi, on the authority of Ibn Abbas al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar, Ch. 11, section 1, pp 246-247

Then Ibn Hajar provides a bizarre commentary for the first tradition, saying: The Shia of Ali are the Ahlussunnah since they are those who love Ahlul-Bayt as Allah and His Prophet ordered. But others (i.e., other than Sunnis) are the enemies of Ahlul-Bayt in reality for the love outside the boundary of law is the great enmity, and that was the reason for their fate. Also, the enemies of Ahlul-Bayt were al-Khawarij and their alike from Syria, not Muawiyah and other companions because they were Muteawweloon, and for them is a good reward, and for Ali and his Shia is a good reward!
Sunni reference: al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar, Ch. 11, section 1, p236

And this is how Sunni scholars cope with the prophetic traditions in favor of "Shia of Ali"! They say that they are the real Shia!

Let us look at one more tradition in this regard: The Messenger of Allah said to Ali: "The first four individuals who will enter the Paradise are me, you, al-Hasan, and al-Husain, and our progeny will be behind us, and our wives will be behind our progeny, and our Shia will be on our right side and in our company."

Sunni references: al-Manaqib, by Ahmad al-Tabarani, as quoted in: al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar Haythami , Ch. 11, section 1, p246

From the above pieces of evidence, the word "Shia" is used by Allah in Quran for His prophets as well as their followers. Further, His blessed Prophet, Muhammad (PBUH&HF) has repeatedly used this word for the followers of Imam Ali (AS). The word Shia is used here in its special meaning, and moreover, it is not in plural form (Parties), rather the above verses and traditions are referring to a special party, i.e., one single party. If Shia meant sectarian, neither Allah would use it for His high rank prophets nor Prophet Muhammad (PBUH&HF) would have praised them.

However there are some verses in Quran which uses the plural form of Shia that is "Shi-ya'a" which means "Parties/groups". This is a general meaning of this term, and not the special meaning in singular form which has been given in previous examples. Of course, only one single party is accepted by Allah and the rest are severely denounced because they have separated from that unique party. So it is clear why Allah denounced "Groups/Parties/sects" (plural form) who separated from that unique group in some verses of Quran. There can't be two righteous groups (with conflicting ideas) at the same time, because between the two leaders one is surely better and more qualified, and thus the claims and the motives of the other leader goes under question.

However I did not locate the exact term of "Ahlussunnah wal-Jama'ah", nor did I find "al-Wahhabiyyah", "al-Salafiyyah" anywhere in the Holy Quran or the traditions of the Prophet. I agree that we should follow the Sunnah of Prophet, but I would like to discover the origin of the exact term here. We Shia are proud to follow the Sunnah of Prophet. However, the question is that which Sunnah is genuine and which one is not. The word "Sunnah" by itself does not serve the purpose of knowledge. All Muslims irrespective to their persuasions claim that they follow the Sunnah of Prophet (PBUH&HF). Please refer to the article titled "Quran and Ahlul-Bayt" for a detailed discussion in this regard.

It should be emphasized that the Messenger of Allah never wished to divide Muslims into groups. Prophet ORDERED all people to follow Imam Ali (AS) as his agent during his life time, and as his Caliph after him. Prophet wished everybody does that. But unfortunately those who heeded him were few and were known as "Shia of Ali" who were subject to all sort of discrimination and prosecution, and suffered from day one of the demise of the Mercy to Mankind, Muhammad (PBUH&HF). If every one (or say the majority Muslims) had obeyed what prophet wished, then there wouldn't exist any group or school within Islam. Allah said in Quran: "Hold fast to the Rope of Allah, all of you together and do not separate" (Quran 3:103)"

The Rope of Allah which we should not separate from, are the Ahlul-Bayt. In fact, some Sunni scholars narrated from Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (AS) saying: "We are the Rope of Allah about whom Allah has said: 'Hold fast to the Rope of Allah, all of you together and do not diverge (3:103)'"

Sunni references: al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar Haythami , Ch. 11, section 1, p233 Tafsir al-Kabir, by al-Tha'labi, under commentary of verse 3:103

Thus, if Allah denounces the sectarianism, He denounces those who separated from His Rope, and not those who hold fast to it! Also some said the Rope of Allah is Quran. This is also true. But by looking at the following tradition narrated by Umm Salama who said: The Messenger of Allah said: "Ali is with Quran, and Quran is with Ali. They shall not separate from each other till they both return to me by the Pool (of Paradise)."

Sunni references: al-Mustadrak, by al-Hakim, v3, p124 on the authority of Umm Salama al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar, Ch. 9, section 2, pp 191,194 al-Awsat, by al-Tabarani; also in al-Saghir Tarikh al-Khulafa, by Jalaluddin al-Suyuti, p173

Then we can conclude that Imam Ali is * the Quran verbatim *. That is, Imam Ali is the Strong Rope of Allah also, because they (Quran and Ali) are non-separable. In fact, there are a huge number of traditions in authentic Sunni sources where Prophet said Quran and Ahlul-Bayt are inseparable and if Muslims want to remain in the right path, they should stick to BOTH of them. (Please refer to the article titled: Quran and Ahlul-Bayt). Therefore, one can conclude that those who separated from Ahlul-Bayt are the sectarian who divided into sects and were denounced by Allah and His prophet due to their divergence.

In fact, the opinion of majority is not a good criteria to distinguish the false from the truth. If you look at the Quran, you will see that Quran severely denounces the majority of by frequently saying that "the majority do not understand", "the majority do not use their logic", "the majority follow their whims"...

In another verse, Allah said: "You are the best nation (Ummah) that has been raised up for the (benefit of) people. You enjoin the good and forbid the evil..." (Quran 3:110).

The best nation is also the Ahlul-Bayt. Let us remember that according to Quran, "nation" does not mean the whole people. This is even clear from the above verse that such Ummah (nation) are raised FOR benefiting the people. Thus Ummah can be only a subset of people and not the whole people. In fact one person can be a nation. Sometimes the act of a single person is worthier than the deeds of the whole nation. This was the case for Prophet Muhammad, Imam Ali, as well as the case for Prophet Abraham, peace be upon them all. Quran states that Abraham (AS) was a nation (Ummah), meaning that his deeds was more valuable than all other people. Allah stated: "Lo! Abraham was a nation (Ummah) who was obedient to Allah, by nature upright, and he was not of the idolaters" (Quran 16:120)

Thus, one single individual can be a nation in the language of Quran. As for the Verse 3:100, it is interesting to note that some Sunni scholars have narrated from Abu Ja'far (Imam Baqir (AS)) that: Abu Ja'far (AS) said about the verse 'You are the best nation raised up for the (benefit of) people...(3:110)': "The Members of the House of the Prophet."

Sunni references: Ibn Abi Hatam, as mentioned in: al-Durr al-Manthoor, by Jalaluddin al-Suyuti under commentary of verse 3:110 of holy Quran.

Also Allah mentioned in Quran: "O' you who believe! Fear Allah and be with the truthful"(Quran 9:119)

According to some Sunni Commentaries, "the truthful" means Imam Ali (AS):

Sunni reference: Tafsir al-Durr al-Manthoor, by al-Hafidh Jalaluddin al-Suyuti, two reports: one from Ibn Mardawayh by Ibn Abbas and the second from Ibn Asakir by Abi Ja'far (AS).

This means that people should have feared Allah and should not have separated from Imam Ali (AS) after the demise of Prophet (PBUH&HF). This unfortunately did not happen at large, and therefore, unfortunate divisions followed it.

With respect to the world al-Siddeeq -- "The Truthful", there are many Sunni narrations in which the Messenger of Allah said: The Truthful are three: Hazqeel (who was) the believer of the family of Pharaoh (see Quran 40:28), and Habeeb al-Najjar (who was) the believer of the family of Yaasin (see Quran 36:20), and Ali Ibn Abi Talib who is the most virtuous one among them (see Quran 9:119)."
Sunni references: Abu Nu'aym and Ibn Asakir, on the authority of Abu Layla Ibn al-Najjar, on the authority of Ibn Abbas al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah, by Ibn Hajar, Ch. 9, section 2, pp 192-193
In conclusion, we have shown in this article that the term Shia has been used in Quran for the followers of the great servants of Allah, and in the traditions of the Prophet for the followers of Imam Ali (AS). One who follows such divinely appointed Guide is safe from the disputes in the religion and has grasped the Strong Rope of Allah, and has been given the glad tiding of Paradise.

Side Comments
A Sunni brother wrote: Sunni means the one who follows the traditions (Sunnah) of the Prophet, and this is supported by the following verse of Quran: Certainly you have in the Apostle of Allah an excellent exemplar (beautiful pattern of conduct) for him who hopes in Allah and the latter day and remembers Allah much. (Quran 33:21)

My comment was as follows:

1)
In the above verse neither the word "Sunnah" nor any of its derivative has been used. As I mentioned earlier, Allah has used the terminology of "Muslim" in its exact form, letter by letter, in the verse 22:78. Also Allah used the word "Shia" again in exact form in verse 37:83 for the Prophet Abraham. However, Allah never used the words such as "Sunni" or as "Ahlussunnah" for the followers of the Prophet (PBUH&HF).

2) 
If you say we do not find such exact terminology, but we understand that the Prophet is our pattern, then one may say that Quran testifies that Prophet Abraham (AS) was a pattern for us as well: "Indeed, there is for you an excellent exemplar (beautiful pattern of conduct) in Abraham..." (Quran 60:4)

Notice that in the above verse, the phrase which has been used for Prophet Abraham (AS) is exactly the same as that of the previous quoted verse used for Prophet Muhammad (PBUH&HF). That is true for the following verse as well: Certainly there is for you in them (Abraham and his followers) an excellent exemplar (beautiful pattern of conduct) for him who fears Allah and the last day; and whoever turns back, then surely Allah is the Self-sufficient, the Praised. (Quran 60:6)

Now please tell us if we can be called a Sunni because we follow Abraham's traditions? Certainly Prophet Muhammad followed the tradition of Prophet Abraham, yet Muhammad (PBUH&HF) was never called Sunni, as that result. Similarly, Prophet Abraham followed the traditions of Prophet Noah, but he was never called a Sunni. Quran mentioned that he was a Shia of Noah.
3)
The word "Sunnah" has used in Quran to refer to the custom of God and the way Allah conducts the affairs and the rules governing the universe (Sunnatullah). But here we are discussing the word Sunnah referred to the Prophet (PBUH&HF), and not the rules governing the universe. As such we are looking for the term such as "Sunnatu Rasoolillah".
4) 
A word XXXX can be used in two ways: XXXXX by definition
or XXXXX by label
All Muslims are Sunni by definition, but only a group of people, which are famous to this name, are Sunni by label. How they got such label needs to be investigated though.

Also, all Muslims are "obedient" by definition, but there is no special group among Muslims who are called "obedient". This shows that having a certain characteristic by definition does not force us to specify such characteristic in our label. In fact, in most cases (not all cases) the label is just a stereotype and does not reflect the real attributes of the holder of such label. Sometime the label is used to allure people to specific version of something which is found in various versions, each of which is claimed to be genuine one, by different groups. As such, it wouldn't be an intelligent practice, in general, to identify the genuineness of something with its label.

Surely, the followers of the Prophet are supposed to follow his Sunnah by definition. But were they called Sunni when Prophet Muhammad was alive? or even few years after his demise? In other words, the question to be answered is: When did the title "Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah" come into existence in the history of Islam for a specific group of Muslims?